Memory Notes.docx

Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it later. It can all be in different forms, like images, sounds, or meanings It is a record of experience that guides future action The information processing approach Wickens model of human information processing. 21 \| Download...

Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it later. It can all be in different forms, like images, sounds, or meanings It is a record of experience that guides future action The information processing approach Wickens model of human information processing. 21 \| Download Scientific Diagram Example Stages of Memory - Attention is an essential part of memory (if we don't pay attention to something in the first place -- how will we remember it later?) - It also depends on and involves three other basic processes: - Encoding: processing (acquiring information) - Storage: storing (maintaining information) - Retrieval: retrieving (recalling information) Memory Encoding **Involves transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory** **Types of memory codes:** **Visual:** the encoding of picture images. **Acoustic --** The encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. **Semantic --** the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words. **The encoding process can be affected by factors including** Emotional state Attention we are paying to situation Pin on Nicole&\#39;s Ap psych Magnificent Midterm (ATC 2015) Memory Storage **Where** the information is stored **How long** the memory lasts for (duration) **How much** can be stored at any time (capacity) **What kind of information** is held How we store information and how we retrieve it Memory Retrieval **The process of recalling information to use:** Intentional remembering Passive recall A **retrieval cue** is a stimulus that indicates remembering. These can be external (e.g. image, text, scene) or internal (e.g. thought or sensation) Cues can be encountered inadvertently or deliberately sought in the process of deliberately trying to remember something Involves both recall and recognition **Recall:** retrieving information from memory with few, if any cues. Example completing a test. **Recognition:** correctly identifying or selecting previously learned information from a set of alternatives. Example: completing a multiple-choice question. Recognition tends to be easier than recall. **Modal Model of Memory** ========================= **Types of Memory**  **Sensory Memory** - Most immediate form of memory - **Extremely brief storage of information form each of the senses in a relatively unprocessed form.** - Contain individual subsystems for each sense **(sound, touch, smell, sight, touch)** called **sensory registers** in which this sensory information is stored. - Information is stored in each register for only a few seconds. Any information within this register that we pay attention to is transferred to short term memory. Modal Model of Memory (sensory memory) Figure 1 from Advertising and memory : The modulation of eye vergence applied in marketing. \| Semantic Scholar Examples of Sensory Memory Registers **Ionic memory:** brief memory of something just seen. **Echoic memory:** brief memory of something just heard **Other modalities of sensory information include** **Proprioception:** force, self movement, body position **Equilibrioception**: balance, spatial awareness **Thermoception:** Temperature. Why is sensory memory so brief? If our iconic memory did not face away quickly, the world would look like a horrible mess of overlapping images If echoic memory did not fade away quickly everything we heard would overlap like horrible noise **Visual Persistence** - When a visual stimulus disappears, we retain some of this information for a brief period - This is due to *visual persistence, where a stimulus may no longer be physically present, but the image of the stimulus is still present* - When a camera flashes, we often get a 'spot' on our visual field that slowly disappears - Visual persistence can also be seen when you wave a sparkler around at night **Short-term memory (STM)** - **Memory system that receives and encodes new information from sensory memory and receives information from long-term memory for temporary use.** - Allows a person to temporarily hold a limited amount of information at the ready for immediate mental use: it's your conscious experience of the present moment. - It is essential for learning, problem-solving and other mental processes required to plan and carry out behaviour. - **Duration:** approximately 20-30 seconds Figure 1 from Advertising and memory : The modulation of eye vergence applied in marketing. \| Semantic Scholar STM: Capacity **Capacity: 7+/-2 items b** **Demonstrated by the Digital-Spam task** participants repeat back in the correct order, a sequence of digits that have just been read to them EG., 7 -- 5 -- 3 = easy 9 -- 4 -- 2 -- 6 -- 5 -- 8 -- 1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 6 = harder The same effect is found for unrelated words Chunking is one way to increase the limited capacity of STM This process reduces the number of items that need to be stored in STM by increasing the information content of each unit ***Chunking is the process by which large pieces of information are divided into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in STM*** **For example** 8 -- 3 -- 1 -- 3 -- 3 -- 8 -- 5 -- 6 = harder 8313 3856 = easier Types of Rehearsal **Elaborative rehearsal:** Thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered. **Maintenance rehearsal:** repeating information over and over to keep it in working memory.  **The working memory model** - **The working memory model** describes STM as a system with multiple components. - It comprises the **central executive,** which controls attention and coordinates the **phonological loop\[** (handling auditory information), and the **visuospatial sketchpad.** - (processing visual and spatial information). - Later, the ***episodic buffer*** was added to integrate information across these systems and link to long-term memory. This model suggests that short-term memory is dynamic and multifaceted. ACC= anterior cingulate cortex **Long-Term Memory (LTM)** ***A relatively permanent information storage system that enables one to retain, retrieve and make use of skills and knowledge hours, weeks or even years after they were originally learned.*** [Differs from STM in several ways:] - How information is stored - How information is retrieved - How information is 'lost' or forgotten  LTM: Types of Knowledge **Declarative / Explicit:** Have to consciously work to remember it. Can explain it. **Semantic:** General knowledge and facts. Eg What is the capital city of Greece? **Episodic:** Specific personal events and their context. E.g How did you get home from school yesterday? **Non-declarative/Implict:** automatic, do not have to consciously think about it **Procedural:** How to do things, motor skills. E.g How to dress yourself in the morning. Organisation of information in LTM - Currently, psychologists aren't quite sure how the information is stored LTM is organised. - There is considerable support for the idea that information in LTM is clustered and associated. - **Clustering** means organising items into related groups, or clusters, during recall. - Different bits of information in LTM are alos logically linked, or **associated**. - One of the best- known theories based on this idea of clustering and association is called the **semantic network theory**. The Semantic Network Theory - Information is stored as groups of concepts ( or **nodes**); these nodes are meaningfully liked and form part of overlapping networks. - Nodes may be thoughts, images, concepts, smells, tastes, memories, emotions or any other piece of information. - To search through memory means you go from node to node until you locate the right information. In this sense, nodes are like cities, which are connected. To each other (associated) by roads. Summary of different types of memory  **Serial Position Effect** - Information is stored in our memory according to the way it is presented to us. - The **serial-position effect** is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best and the middle items worse. - The position effect includes two effects: the primary effect and the recency effect. - These two effects provide a detailed explanation of our ability to recall the learned information, and they are closely related to the model of memory **Real-life examples can include** - Advertising and marketing - Menus - Real estate - Websites - Order of products in supermarkets - Product reviews - Learning - Ad-ranking - School timetable The Primacy effect - An individual is more likely to recall the information that he/she was presented first, ie, the information present on the top of the list - According to the modal model of memory, the information is usually stored in the long-term memory of the person in case of primacy effect.  The recency effect - According to the recency effect, an individual is more likely to recall the items that are presented to him/her more recently, i.e., the information present at the end of the list.  - Not as long-lasting as the primacy effect.  - The word present at the end of the list are more likely to be stored in STM. - The storage capacity of the data stored in STM is quite limited, hence, when the person is distracted for a while after he/she had learned the given piece of data, then the recency effect may fade away. Interaction between STM and LTM: The Serial Effect *Items in the middle haven't been in STM long enough to be consolidated into LTM before being 'pushed out' by the new items at the end of the list.* **LEVELS OF PROCESSING** Levels of Processing Model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) - The levels of processing model focus on the depth of processing involved in memory. [According to this model:] - Repetition alone isn't enough to explain why some memories last longer than others. - The way we process information at the encoding stage is the most important factor that influences our recall. - The deeper information is processed, the longer a memory will last Levels of Processing Model **Structural processing:** - [Structural processing] is when we only encode the physical and visual qualities of something. - Eg the shape of a word, its colour or the use of capital letters. - This is a shallow level of processing that doesn't require much deep thought and thus results in a rapid decay of the information. - Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal to stay in our STM, which is why it leads to a fairly short-term retention of information. **Phonetic processing:** - [Phonemic processing is] deeper than structural processing but is still a shallow form of processing information. - Phonemic processing occurs when we encode sound information only. - E.g. a word list is read out loud, and a rhyming word is thought of, or you identify which words have two syllables. In order to answer the question, you have to sound out each of the words in your head. - Has a higher rate of recall than visual processing. **Semantic processing:** - The deepest form of processing. - [Semantic processing] involves processing information about the meaning of the word and relate it to what is already understood (eg similar words with similar meaning). - Involves elaboration rehearsal, which involves a more meaningful analysis (eg images, thinking, associations, etc) of information and leads to better recall. **Example of Levels of processing:** Reading the word "**HAIR**"  PPT - Memory Encoding, Storage, & Retrieval PowerPoint Presentation \... **Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory** ========================================= Types of Memory Review  Parts of the brain involved in memory Different areas of the brain are involved in different types of memory The main parts of the brain involved in memory are: - Amygdala - Hippocampus - Cerebellum - Prefrontal cortex - Neocortex - Basal ganglia The Neural Basis of Explicit and Implicit Memories A close-up of a diagram AI-generated content may be incorrect. **Amygdala** - The main function is to regulate emotions such as fear and aggression. - Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. - The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing. **Hippocampus** - Formation of new LTM semantic and episodic (declarative) memories. - Plays a crucial role in binding together the different elements of our experiences and consolidating these explicit memories in the neocortex. - Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories. One famous patient, known for years only as H. M., had both his left and right temporal lobes (hippocampi) removed in an attempt to help control the seizures he had been suffering from for years (Corkin, Amaral, González, Johnson, & Hyman, 1997). As a result, his declarative memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery. **Neocortex** - The neocortex is the wrinkled outermost layer of the cerebrum. - It is the most recently evolved area of the brain (neo means new). - The neocortex accounts for 76% of total brain volume. - The neocortex is Latin for "**new rind**" or "**new bark**". - Has different subunits, and each performs a distinct function. - Controls a **person's language** and consciousness. - The neocortex processes the sensory, motor and perceptual information that we become aware of. - Contains the prefrontal cortex, which encodes the information into STM and LTM. - Stores LT explicit memories throughout the rest of the neocortex. **Prefrontal Cortex** - The prefrontal cortex (the most frontal potion of the neocortex) controls the higher cognitive functions of attention, thought and language that allow us to reflect consciously on our experiences. - Involved in the processing and retention of information by: **Cerebellum** - Involved in the creation of implicit LT memories: procedural memory and motor learning. - Also maintains internal representations of the external world, which allow you to navigate through your living room to find your keys in complete darkness, and professional baseball players to coordinate their movement so they can catch outfield fly balls. **Basal Ganglia** - Set of structures that lie beneath the cortex. - Store procedural memories of sequences or practiced voluntary movements. **Diagrams**  Building the Bridge: Outlining Steps Toward an Applied Sleep-and-Memory Research Program - Gordon B. Feld, Susanne Diekelmann, 2020 **Improving Memory** ==================== Enhancing memory: - Paying attention in the first place  - Brainstorm/mind maps (visual) - Colour coding (visual) - Attaching meaning (semantic) - Listening to your notes (auditory)  - Making songs/rhymes out of key points (auditory) - Studying in a similar environment as the test (context cues) - Flash cards / spaced repetition (supporting remembering) - Chunking (STM capacity) Improving memory: - Human memory is an extremely effective system for sorting and retrieving information. However, memory isn't perfect as evidenced by forgetting.  - Through empirical research, psychologists have identified a number of very effective strategies for minimizing forgetting from LTM and thereby improving memory.  Mnemonic devices: - Specific techniques for improving LTM usually by forging a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded.  - A mnemonic device can be really simple, such as a basic rhyme, or quite complex and demanding to learn.  - Provide ways of improving encoding, storage and retrieval of information from LTM.        Mnemonic Devices for the Biological Psychology Chapter By Michael A. Britt, Ph.D. Psych Test Prep and The Psych Files Hi. This Acronyms: - Abbreviation made up of the first letter of different words, which together form a pronounceable words.  Rhymes: - A collection of words or statement in which keywords have similar sound, often with an emphasis on similar sounding key words  - They organize information into LTM by associating the information with a  particular rhythm (sounds) and with rhyming words.  Acrostics: - Method of word association involving constructing a meaningful phrase formed from the first letters of the items to be remembered. Narrative chaining: - A story (narrative) is created around the words to be remembered, linking (chaining) the words in a specific order - [Example: ]remembering parts of the brain from front to back. - *John got into his car, turned on the very large **motor** and drove to a restaurant. The smells sent him into **somatosensory** overload, and his **auditory **reaction startled all those in **visual **range.* Massed vs distributed practice: Massed practice: - Process of learning information in one intensive session  - Limited chance of information being retained in LTM unless its deeply processed  Distributed practice: - Information is reviewed at spaced intervals. - Helps to consolidate the learning and reactivate neural pathways for the memory.    Overlearning: - ***Overlearning*** is continuing to rehearse information after it has been learned. - Rehearsing past the point of mastery -- being able to recall the information with complete accuracy. - Aim is to ensure information is available even under stress and more resistant to forgetting. Context-dependence: - The more closely retrieval cues (sights, smells, sounds) match the environment (context) in which the encoding of the memory took place, the greater the chance of recalling. - Example: - You're more likely to remember information in a test if the test is being completed in the same classroom where you were taught the information. Memory technologies: - Hippocampal prosthesis - Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Hippocampal Prosthesis: - Electrodes are placed in the hippocampal regions of the brain to mimic peoples individual brain activity when they are using STM. - Used to boost recall on further learning. - Could be used in treating memory conditions such as amnesia and Alzheimer's disease.  A blue and white rectangular box with black text AI-generated content may be incorrect.   Transcranial Magnetic stimulation: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Therapy for Depression - Can be used to increase retention by applying TMS to the left pre-fontal cortex where much of out encoding and retrieval processed occur. - Enhances neural connections involved in learning and memory.  - Can cause headaches, tinnitus and seizures.