Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

• Memory is retaining info or experience through encoding, storage, and retrieval, for example, observing, storing and recalling information

Encoding

• Intake of information through sights and sounds.

Storage

• Storing or representing information like a mental storehouse.

Retrieval

• Retrieving information when required, such as when someone asks.
• Memory can use conscious or automatic processes, and multiple systems depending on awareness and consciousness levels

Memory Encoding

• Encoding, the first step in memory, is the process by which information gets into memory storage
• Encoding can be automatic or require effort
• Confabulation fills memory gaps using schemas, frameworks, and logic

Attention

• Attention is necessary for encoding
• Conscious mind processing capacity is about 120 bits per second, with half needed to pay attention to something
• Focus on conscious awareness increasing memory
• Sensory detection involves ignoring stimuli to focus
• Recognition of meaning determines stimuli meaning
• Response selection ignores irrelevant stimuli, like ignoring movement in a lecture except people raising hands

Types of Attention

• Divided attention impairs encoding and performance
• Multitasking divides attention with negative consequences for learning and memory
• Sustained attention is the ability to maintain focus for extended periods

Levels of Processing

• Encoding varies from shallow to deep, with deeper processing enhancing memory
• Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart suggested encoding is influenced by levels of processing
• Example: Memorizing the word "mom"
• Shallow, recall the shapes, colours etc
• Intermediate, read the word and remember it by rhyming etc
• Deep, personal meaning like relating it to your own mom, her face etc.

Elaboration

• Elaboration connects information to existing knowledge
• It forms multiple connections strengthening memory and linking to neural activity such as the left frontal lobe and hippocampus
• Self-reference is an effective elaboration method relating material to personal experience

Imagery

• A useful method of rememoring material is using mental imagery like creating a story with the things or remembering a name by noting a mole on the face that needs to be rememored
• Allan Paivio showed imagery improves memory via verbal/image codes, leading to better picture recall

Facilitating Encoding

• Deep encoding involves connecting new information with existing knowledge
• Elaboration is the use of examples and narratives
• Visual imagery increases neural traces, enhancing retrieval
• Self-referential encoding uses personal examples
• Rehearsal and over-learning repetition is helpful but is not efficient
• Deep and transfer appropriate processing tailors studying to use and testing
• Distributed practice distributes sessions for better attention and consolidation
• Organizing information using lists etc is helpful

Mnemonics

• Mnemoninc involves verbal or visual methods to facilitate encoding
• Verbal mnemonics uses acrostics, acronyms, and rhymes
• Visual mnemonics use link and loci methods, and keywords, such as SQ3R

Encoding specificity

• Recall depends on match between encoding and retrieval
• Walking into a familiar old bedroom brings back memories because of its familiarity
• Emotional states influences recall
• Shallow processing during learning may impair deep processing during examination
• Studying multiple-choice questions will not help with an essay exam
• State-dependent memory occurs if encoding and retrieval match

Memory Storage

• Memory Storage is the retention of info over time, and how it's represented
• The Atkinson–Shiffrin theory has three systems:
• Sensory Memory/Registers
• Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Sensory Memory

• Sensory memory holds information in its original form briefly
• It is rich, detailed and lost if there is no transfer to either short-term or long-term memory
• Echoic memory stores auditory information a few seconds
• Iconic memory retains visual information about ¼ second

Short Term Memory

• Short-term memory capacity is limited retaining information for 30 seconds, but can be longer, and capacity is limited
• Memory span measures digit recall ability
• STM duration is limited with information fading after 20-30 seconds without rehearsal
• STM capacity is about 7 items across cultures
• STM Involves Rehearsal
• Maintenance: Information is repeated
• Elaborative: Information is related to other knowledge

Chunking & Rehearsal

• Increase short-term memory
• Chunking involves grouping info
• Rehearsal a conscious repetition of information

Working Memory

• Working memory, an active system, combines STM and attention to hold and process information
• Working memory's temporary storage and conscious control helps solve problems respond to demands and achieve goals
• Working memory may consist of three modules: Visual, Verbal, and Central Executive

Alan Baddeley's three-part model with central executive

• Phonological loop stores speech-based info with rehearsal in store using acoustic code that decays in seconds
• A visuo-spatial sketchpad stores limited-cqpacity visual/spatial info with visual imagery
• Central executive integrates info from above and works with LTM functioning as supervisor and monitoring

Long-Term-Memory

• Long-term memory stores vast amounts of information
• Representations in LTM like facts, images are retained over lifetime
• It has retrieval and is theoretically limitless in capacity
• The Curve supports STM / LTM where Primacy effect reflects LTM & Recency effect reflects STM

Explicit and Implicit Memory

• Explicit memory is remembering who, what, where, when, and how
• Implicit memory is remembering how
• Explicit memory loss doesn’t mean one cannot learn new skills and improve
• Patient H.M had hippocampus (portion temporal lobes) removed affecting explicit memory

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

• The Conscious recollection of of information or events from specific facts that can be verbally shared
• Permastore memory original learning stays with somebody often without rehearsal
• Reliving episode
• semantic memory Person’s knowledge about the world, general knowledge
• this is why somebody cannot remember episodic, but the knowledge remains
• Semantic and episodic memory differ in units, organization, emotion, Legal testimony etc Implicit memory or non declarative prior experience on behavior e.g. riding bike procedural.

Subsystems of Implicit Memory

• Procedural memory is memory of skills like typing
• Associative Stimuli. Priming Activation of information helps person remember and make it faster.

Working Memory and LTM

Evidence Supports distinction between WM and LTM

• In working memory easy to access limited Capacity e.g. chimpanzees are more limited. Neurological studies show damage impairs memory. chunking LTM info. increasesitem size in working memorey

Functional Aspects of memory

• Recall for information maybe a function of our interest info Networks of Association LTMorganized clusters and related meaning folk soak yolk active The network connected nodes a node device allow access to existing networks

LTM

• varieties and declarative more.
• Semantic and. Episodic can help wih explicit
• Skilled withImplicit LTM

How memory's Organized

Memory organized by way to help you remember it for instance can organize by time and event , a chart

What are schemas

Framework or concepts that are preexisting make inferences and retrieve info schemas not theory.

• They can reconstructed long-term memory such as having Script to have things remembered

Connectionalism or parallel Distributed processing

Is stored through and neural. Networks and it be the electrical pulse will get memories in base in the brain