Memory Concepts and Stages

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What is memory?

The mental processes that enable us to retain and use information over time

What is encoding?

The process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system

What is storage?

The process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time

What is retrieval?

The process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it Signup and view all the answers

What does the stage model of memory describe?

A model describing memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory memory?

The stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time Signup and view all the answers

What is short-term memory?

The active stage of memory in which information is stored for up to about 20 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What is long-term memory?

The stage of memory that represents the long-term storage of information Signup and view all the answers

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A type of memory rehearsal that is useful in maintaining information in short-term memory or working memory Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking?

Increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit Signup and view all the answers

What is working memory?

The part of short-term memory that is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing Signup and view all the answers

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered Signup and view all the answers

What does the levels-of-processing framework describe?

Memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing Signup and view all the answers

What is procedural memory?

A part of long-term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills Signup and view all the answers

What is episodic memory?

The memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated Signup and view all the answers

What is semantic memory?

A portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts not drawn from personal experience Signup and view all the answers

What is explicit memory?

The conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information Signup and view all the answers

What is implicit memory?

A type of memory where previous experiences aid task performance without conscious awareness Signup and view all the answers

What is clustering?

Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the retrieval cue?

A clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the tip-of-the-tongue experience?

Characterized by being able to retrieve information about the target word without retrieving the word itself Signup and view all the answers

What is recall?

Bringing a fact, event, or situation back into one's mind Signup and view all the answers

What is cued recall?

An aspect of recall where retrieval is facilitated by the provision of cues Signup and view all the answers

What is recognition?

The action or process of recognizing or being recognized Signup and view all the answers

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to recall information presented first and last better than information presented in the middle Signup and view all the answers

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A framework for understanding how contextual information affects memory and recall Signup and view all the answers

What is the context effect?

The influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is mood congruence?

The congruence between feeling and the manner in which that emotion is expressed Signup and view all the answers

What are flashbulb memories?

Vivid, precise, long-lasting memories of personal circumstances surrounding shocking events Signup and view all the answers

What is forgetting?

To cease or fail to remember; be unable to recall Signup and view all the answers

What is encoding failure?

The brain's occasional failure to create a memory link Signup and view all the answers

What is déjà vu?

The phenomenon of having the strong sensation that an event has been experienced in the past Signup and view all the answers

What is prospective memory?

A form of memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action at the appropriate time Signup and view all the answers

What does decay theory propose?

Memory fades due to the mere passage of time Signup and view all the answers

What is interference theory?

Theory stating that learning is affected when new material interferes with past learned behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is retroactive interference?

When recalling old information is difficult due to newly learned information Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference?

When old knowledge negatively influences the recall of newly learned material Signup and view all the answers

What is suppression?

The action of suppressing something such as an activity or publication Signup and view all the answers

What is repression?

The action of subduing someone or something by force Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect?

When recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information Signup and view all the answers

What is source confusion?

An attribute seen in different people's accounts of the same event after hearing others speak about it Signup and view all the answers

What are false memories?

An apparent recollection of an event that did not actually occur Signup and view all the answers

What are schemas?

A representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model Signup and view all the answers

What are scripts?

Handwriting as distinct from print; written characters Signup and view all the answers

What is imagination inflation?

The finding that imagining an event which never happened can increase confidence that it actually occurred Signup and view all the answers

What is a memory trace?

The brain can edit a retrieved memory trace Signup and view all the answers

What is long-term potentiation?

A persistent increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a chemical synapse Signup and view all the answers

What is retrograde amnesia?

A loss of memory-access to events before an injury or disease onset Signup and view all the answers

What is memory consolidation?

A category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition Signup and view all the answers

What is anterograde amnesia?

A loss of the ability to create new memories after the event causing the amnesia Signup and view all the answers

What is amnesia?

A partial or total loss of memory Signup and view all the answers

What is Alzheimer's disease?

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions Signup and view all the answers

What is dementia?

A group of thinking and social symptoms that interferes with daily functioning Signup and view all the answers

Who is Suzanne Corkin?

An American neuropsychologist who has investigated the neural basis of memory Signup and view all the answers

Who is Hermann Ebbinghaus?

A German psychologist who originated the scientific study of forgetting Signup and view all the answers

Who is Eric Kandel?

An American neurologist who won a Nobel Prize for his work on the neural basis of learning and memory Signup and view all the answers

Who is Karl Lashley?

Known for important contributions to the study of learning and memory Signup and view all the answers

Who is Elizabeth F. Loftus?

Known for her work on the misinformation effect and eyewitness memory Signup and view all the answers

Who is Brenda Milner?

An important figure in the research of clinical neuropsychology Signup and view all the answers

Who is George Sperling?

Known for the discovery of iconic memory Signup and view all the answers

Who is Richard F. Thompson?

Discovered the engram in the cerebellum and is a pioneer in Pavlovian learning Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Memory Concepts

Memory encompasses processes that allow the retention and recall of information over time.
Encoding transforms information into a format suitable for storage in memory.
Storage involves maintaining encoded information for future use.
Retrieval refers to the process of accessing stored information for conscious awareness.

Stages of Memory

The stage model of memory classifies memory into three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory briefly holds environmental information.
Short-term memory actively retains information for about 20 seconds.
Long-term memory provides permanent storage for encoded information.

Memory Techniques

Maintenance rehearsal keeps information active in short-term memory but is ineffective for long-term storage.
Chunking enhances short-term memory capacity by organizing information into manageable units.
Working memory focuses on immediate cognitive processing, including perception and language.
Elaborative rehearsal connects new information to existing knowledge to aid retention.

Types of Memory

Procedural memory stores knowledge of how to perform tasks, like motor skills.
Episodic memory involves autobiographical events, including details of time and context.
Semantic memory contains general knowledge and concepts not based on personal experience.
Explicit memory requires conscious recollection, while implicit memory aids performance without awareness.

Memory Retrieval

Retrieval cues are prompts that assist in recalling stored information.
Retrieval cue failure occurs when cues are inadequate, hindering memory recall.
The tip-of-the-tongue experience is characterized by partial retrieval of information.

Memory Effects and Phenomena

The serial position effect suggests individuals recall the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.
The encoding specificity principle states retrieval is more successful when the context during encoding matches that during recall.
Context effects illustrate how environmental factors influence perception and memory recall.

Memory Distortion

Mood congruence signifies that an individual's current mood can affect memory recall of related information.
Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of significant shocking events with details remembered clearly.
The misinformation effect occurs when post-event information alters the recall of episodic memories.
Source confusion can lead to misattributing the origin of a memory.

Memory Loss and Disorders

Forgetting refers to the inability to recall information that was previously encoded.
Encoding failure results when the brain fails to create a memory link.
Retroactive interference makes it difficult to recall old information due to interference from new learning.
Proactive interference hinders comprehension of new material due to previously learned information.
Amnesia can be retrograde (loss of past memories) or anterograde (inability to form new memories).

Key Figures in Memory Research

Suzanne Corkin extensively studied memory's neural basis, particularly in amnesia patients.
Hermann Ebbinghaus introduced the forgetting curve, illustrating the decline of memory retention over time.
Eric Kandel’s research on Aplysia revealed neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory.
Elizabeth Loftus is recognized for her work on false memories and eyewitness accounts.
George Sperling's discovery of iconic memory pertains to visual sensory memory.

Other Important Concepts

Long-term potentiation describes the strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
Dementia refers to a decline in cognitive abilities impacting daily functioning.
Imagination inflation indicates that imagining an event that didn’t happen can lead to false recollections.

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Description

Explore the fascinating world of memory through this quiz on memory concepts, stages, and techniques. Learn about encoding, storage, and retrieval processes, as well as strategies like chunking and maintenance rehearsal. Test your knowledge and deepen your understanding of how memory works.