Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow’s Pyramid)

• A five-tier model of human needs, represented as a pyramid.
• Each level must be satisfied before moving to the next.
• Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs, for example food, water, and shelter.
• Example: someone who is hungry focuses on finding food.
• Safety Needs: Security, for example, safety and stability.
• Example: Seeking a safe environment after experiencing a natural disaster.
• Love/Belonging Needs: Friendship, intimacy, family, social connections.
• Example: Someone who seeks out close friendships and romantic relationships.
• Esteem Needs: Recognition, respect, self-esteem, and achievement.
• Example: A student working hard to earn top grades in school.
• Self-Actualization: Achieving one’s full potential and personal growth.
• Example: An artist dedicating themselves to their craft and striving for creative excellence.

Drive-Reduction Theory

• Motivation arises from the need to reduce biological drives to maintain homeostasis.
• Drive: A physiological state that triggers behavior to meet a need.
• Example: Hunger motivates a person to find and eat food to reduce the feeling of hunger.
• Homeostasis: Maintenance of a balanced state.
• Example: The body regulates its temperature to stay within a healthy range.

Incentive Theory

• Motivation is influenced by external rewards or incentives that encourage behavior.
• Example: A person works hard at their job to earn a bonus or promotion.

Arousal Theory

• People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
• Too little arousal leads to boredom, and too much leads to stress.
• Example: Some people enjoy playing video games because they find the activity exciting and stimulating.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• The optimal level of arousal depends on the complexity of the task.
• Simple tasks need higher arousal, while more complex tasks need lower arousal for best performance.
• Example: A person might perform best on a simple task (like running) when they are highly aroused. They perform better on a difficult test when they are moderately aroused.

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal factors, for example, personal satisfaction.
• Example: A person reads a book because they enjoy the content.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards or consequences.
• Example: A person studies to earn a good grade.

Conflict Motives

• Approach-Approach Conflict: Choosing between two desirable options.
• Example: Choosing between two exciting vacation destinations.
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two unpleasant options.
• Example: Deciding between doing a boring assignment or facing a punishment for not doing it.
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict: One option has both positive and negative aspects.
• Example: Deciding whether to stay in a job you love, but with an extremely long commute.
• Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two or more options, each with positive and negative aspects.
• Example: Choosing between two colleges, one with great academics but high tuition, and the other with lower costs but fewer extracurriculars.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Emotions are the result of physiological responses to stimuli.
• Example: You see a bear (stimulus), your heart starts racing (physiological response), and then you feel fear (emotion).

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

• Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently.
• Example: Seeing a bear causes both your heart to race and you feel fear at the same time.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

• Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
• Example: Your heart races when you see a bear, and you interpret this arousal as fear, based on the context of the situation.

Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Theory

• Emotions are the result of cognitive appraisal, which is how we evaluate and interpret a situation.
• Example: If you see a bear, your emotional reaction depends on whether you perceive the bear as a threat (fear) or something harmless (curiosity).

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Describes how the body reacts to stress in three stages.
• Alarm: The body’s immediate response (fight or flight).
• Example: Feeling your heart race when you’re startled by an alarm.
• Resistance: The body adapts to ongoing stress.
• Example: Continuing to work under pressure despite feeling tired.
• Exhaustion: The body’s resources are depleted after prolonged stress.
• Example: Experiencing burnout from chronic work stress.

Freud’s Explanation of Personality

• Freud's psychoanalytic theory consists of three parts.
• Id: The unconscious part that seeks immediate gratification.
• Example: A child throwing a tantrum because they want a toy now.
• Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and superego.
• Example: A person deciding to delay their desire for something in order to avoid consequences.
• Superego: The moral compass that represents internalized societal rules.
• Example: A person feels guilty for lying because their conscience tells them it's wrong.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

• Personality develops through five psychosexual stages.
• Oral Stage (0-1): Focus on pleasure from oral activities (e.g., sucking).
• Example: An infant sucking on a pacifier.
• Anal Stage (1-3): Focus on toilet training and control over bodily functions.
• Example: A child learning to use the potty.
• Phallic Stage (3-6): Focus on the genitals and attraction to the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus/Electra complex).
• Example: A child showing affection for their opposite-sex parent.
• Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual feelings are dormant, focus on intellectual and social development.
• Example: A child engaging in school activities and friendships.
• Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual relationships and personal development.
• Example: Adolescents beginning romantic relationships.

Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

• Unconscious strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety or distress.
• Repression: Pushing unpleasant thoughts into the unconscious.
• Example: Not remembering a traumatic childhood event.
• Denial: Refusing to acknowledge reality.
• Example: A person denying they have a substance abuse problem.
• Projection: Attributing your own undesirable feelings to others.
• Example: Accusing others of being jealous when you're the one feeling jealous.
• Displacement: Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one.
• Example: Yelling at a friend after having a bad day at work.
• Rationalization: Justifying bad behavior with logical explanations.
• Example: Saying "I only cheated because everyone else was doing it."
• Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
• Example: A person with aggressive tendencies becoming a professional boxer.
• Reaction formation: Unconsciously substituting an unacceptable impulse or feeling with its opposite in behavior or thought, often to an exaggerated extent

Humanistic Explanation of Personality

• Theories emphasize personal growth and self-actualization.
• Carl Rogers’ Unconditional Positive Regard: People need unconditional love and acceptance to develop a positive self-concept.
• Example: A parent who loves their child regardless of behavior.

Trait Perspective of Personality

• Focuses on individual differences in personality traits, like the Big Five.
• Example: Some people are highly conscientious, while others are more spontaneous.

Big Five Personality Theory (OCEAN)

• Openness: Curiosity, imagination, willingness to try new things.
• Example: A person enjoys exploring new ideas and experiences.
• Conscientiousness: Dependability, organization, and goal-oriented behavior.
• Example: A person plans ahead and meets deadlines.
• Extraversion: Outgoing, sociable, and energetic behavior.
• Example: A person enjoys parties and social events.
• Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperation, and friendliness.
• Example: A person is empathetic and gets along well with others.
• Neuroticism: Tendency toward negative emotions like anxiety or irritability.
• Example: A person frequently feels anxious and insecure.

Social Cognitive Theory

• Emphasizes the interaction between personal factors, behavior, and the environment.
• Example: A person who sees their friends succeed at school may be motivated to study harder due to the belief they can also succeed.

Personality Assessment

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test where people create stories based on ambiguous images, revealing inner feelings and motivations.
• Example: A person telling a story about a picture of two people interacting may reveal their own relationship issues.
• Rorschach Inkblot Test: A projective test where individuals interpret inkblots, revealing hidden thoughts and emotions.
• Example: A person who sees a butterfly in an inkblot might have a positive outlook on life.

Self-Serving Bias

• The tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external ones.
• Example: Saying "I did well on the test because I studied hard," but blaming a poor grade on a difficult exam.

Self-Efficacy

• Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.
• Example: A student believes they can pass the exam because they’ve studied effectively.