Map Scale, Projections and Toponyms

Basic Concepts

• Scale is the relationship between the size of an object on a map and its actual size on Earth.
• A county map typically uses a larger scale than a state map because a county is smaller than a state.
• Projection involves transferring the Earth's 3D surface onto a 2D map.
• Shape distortion can occur, making landmasses appear larger or smaller than they are in reality, such as Greenland appearing larger.
• Distance distortion can affect the distance between points on a map
• Relative size distortion can cause some areas to appear disproportionately larger or smaller.
• Direction distortion can affect compass directions on a map.
• Toponym refers to the name given to a place on Earth, like Boogertown, North Carolina.
• Place names often reflect cultural, historical, or geographical features, such as the "Rocky Mountains".
• The Township and Range System, a rectangular land division system, was introduced in the U.S. in 1785.
• This system created a grid-like pattern for cities and roads, especially in the Midwest and West.
• Many American cities are laid out in a square pattern because of the Township and Range System.
• Site refers to the physical characteristics of a place like its climate, soil or elevation.
• Fertile soil near a river is an example of a site that may be favorable for agriculture.
• Situation describes the location of a place relative to other places
• An example of a situation is "I live in Georgetown, just north of Austin."
• Mathematical location is the precise location of a place using meridians (longitude) and parallels (latitude).
• New York City’s coordinates are approximately 40.7128° N, 74.0060° W.
• A formal region is an area with one or more shared characteristics, such as political boundaries or climate zones.
• Examples of formal regions include Texas, Winona, or the Sahara Desert
• A functional region is an area organized around a central node or point, like a business or transportation hub.
• The Minnesota Vikings Radio Network, where the radio station is the node, exemplifies a functional region.
• A vernacular region is a region perceived to exist by its inhabitants, such as the American South or Cajun region.
• An example is the "Midwest" is a region, even though its boundaries are not formally defined.
• Space-time compression refers to the reduction in time it takes to reach another place due to improved technology like planes and the internet.
• A flight from New York to London now takes only 7 hours, contrasting with weeks by ship in the past.
• Diffusion is the process where a characteristic spreads from one place to another over time.
• Relocation diffusion is the spread of an idea through the physical movement of people.
• Relocation diffusion is exemplified by the use of the Euro in France in 2002 after people moved between European countries.
• Expansion diffusion is the spread of a feature in a snowballing process.
• Expansion diffusion is exemplified by sushi spreading from Japan to the rest of the world.
• Hierarchical diffusion is the spread of an idea from persons or places of authority to others.
• Hierarchical diffusion is exemplified by rap music spreading from urban areas to smaller towns.
• Contagious diffusion is rapid and widespread, of a characteristic throughout a population.
• COVID-19 diffusion is an example of contagious diffusion.
• Stimulus diffusion involves the spread of an underlying principle, even if the characteristic itself fails to spread.
• Stimulus diffusion is exemplified by Windows technology created by Apple, which inspired other operating systems.

Population

• Physiological density is the number of people per unit of arable land.
• Egypt has high physiological density because most people live near the Nile River, where the land is fertile.
• Arithmetic density is the total number of people per square mile.
• An example is New York City, which has a high arithmetic density due to its dense population.
• Agricultural density is the number of farmers per unit of arable land.
• A country with high agricultural density has many farmers working small plots of land.

Critical Issues in Population Geography

• Rapid population growth is a critical issue, especially in developing countries.
• Urbanization is occurring rapidly, with 2/3 of the world expected to live in cities by 2030.
• Most population growth occurred in the last 400 years, especially in the 20th century.
• People tend not to live in dry lands, tropical rainforests, highlands, and cold lands.

Main Populous Areas of the World:

• South Asia includes India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
• East Asia includes China, Japan, and South Korea.
• Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by high fertility rates and a young population.
• The Natural Increase Rate (NIR)
• NIR is calculated by subtracting the Crude Death Rate (CDR) from the Crude Birth Rate (CBR).
• For example, CBR of 19 - CDR of 8 = 11/1000 = 1.1% NIR.
• The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.
• Replacement level is about 2.1 children per woman, which is the number needed to replace the population.
• High fertility rates are typical in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Low fertility rates can be found in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Eastern Europe.

Mortality (Deaths)

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of children under one year old per 1,000 births.
• Life expectancy is higher in developed countries like Japan (84 years) compared to developing countries such as Sub-Saharan Africa (55 years).
• Population pyramids visually represent the age and sex distribution of a population.
• Sex ratio is the number of males per 100 females, for example, 105 males per 100 females at birth.
• Dependency ratio measures the number of people too young or old to work compared to the working-age population.

Malthus Theory

• Malthus theorized that population grows geometrically while food supply grows arithmetically.
• A criticism of Malthus's theory is that technology can increase food production.

Demographic Transition Model

• Stage 1 is characterized by high birth and death rates, common in hunting and gathering societies.
• Stage 2 has high birth rates and declining death rates, typical during agricultural development.
• Stage 3 sees declining birth rates and low death rates, associated with industrialization.
• Stage 4 is marked by low birth and death rates, a feature of post-industrial societies.

Epidemiologic Transition

• Stage 1 involves death from infectious diseases, such as the Black Plague.
• Stage 2 sees a decline in pandemics but a rise in chronic diseases.
• Stage 3 is characterized by death from degenerative diseases like heart disease.
• Stage 4 involves delayed degenerative diseases due to medical advances.
• Stage 5 is defined by the re-emergence of infectious diseases.

Migration

• Migration is defined as a permanent movement from one place to another.
• Immigration is moving into a place; emigration is moving out of a place.
• Net migration is calculated as immigration minus emigration.
• Mobility includes all types of movement, such as daily commutes.
• Circulation refers to short-term, repetitive movements like commuting.

Internal Migration

• Interregional migration is movement between regions, such as from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf Coast.
• Intraregional migration is movement within a region, like from a suburb to a city.

Rural to Urban Transition in China

• China's rural population has decreased from 77% in 1990 to 39% in 2020.

International Migration

• Voluntary migration occurs when migrants choose to move, e.g., for jobs.
• Forced migration occurs when migrants are compelled to move, e.g., refugees.

Push and Pull Factors

• Economic factors include jobs (pull) versus lack of jobs (push).
• Cultural factors include political instability (push) versus democratic governments (pull).
• Environmental factors include natural disasters (push) versus attractive climates (pull).

US Immigration History

• The Quota Acts limited immigration based on nationality, e.g., the 1921 Quota Act.
• Current immigration is mostly from Latin America and Asia.
• There are an estimated 12 million undocumented workers in the U.S., mostly from Mexico and Central America.
• Chain migration is when immigrants bring relatives from their home country.
• Refugees are people forced to migrate due to persecution or war.
• Some examples of refugees include Cubans and Vietnamese.

Migration Within the US

• Historical trends include the Erie Canal, the Gold Rush, and suburbanization.
• Current trends include retirees moving to rural areas like Florida and the Inter-Mountain West.

Folk and Popular Culture

• Folk culture is traditionally practiced by small, homogenous groups in isolated areas.
• Folk culture varies based on local traditions and environments, resulting in changes from place to place.
• Popular culture is found in large, heterogeneous societies.
• Popular culture evolves with trends and media, causing changes from time to time.

Spread of Folk and Popular Culture

• Folk culture spreads slowly through relocation diffusion.
• Popular culture spreads rapidly through media and technology.

Food and Folk Culture

• Food and Folk Cultures are influenced by local climate and resources.
• Examples are wheat in Northern China and rice in Southern China.

Housing and Folk Culture

• Housing and Folk Cultures are influenced by local materials.
• Examples are sod homes in the Great Plains and stone homes in Ireland.

Isolation and Cultural Diversity:

• Isolation promotes cultural diversity, such as unique customs in isolated areas.

Folk Culture Blending into Popular Culture

• An example is folk sports becoming global popular culture, such as soccer.

Types of Diffusion

Relocation Diffusion

• Spreads through the physical movement of people from one place to another
• The idea moves with the people who carry it
• Example: Spread of Christianity in Americas or Euro in France

Expansion Diffusion

• Spreads as a snowballing process with the number of people/areas affected growing overtime
• The idea spreads outward from its origin, but the origin remains unchanged.

Hierarchical Diffusion

• Spreads from persons or places of authority to other places/people
• The idea jumps from important nodes to smaller nodes
• Example: Rap music from urban areas (New York, Los Angeles) to smaller towns

Contagious Diffusion

• Spreads rapidly and widely of a characteristic throughout a population
• The idea spreads evenly in all directions from origin
• Example: Spread of COVID-19, viral internet memes

Stimulus Diffusion

• Spreads an underlying principle or concept, even if the original idea fails to spread
• Core idea is adapted or modified as it spreads
• Example: Apple's iPhone technology inspiring other smartphone designs such as Android phones, or McDonald's adapting its menu to local tastes in different countries

Identifying Diffusion Types

• Relocation Diffusion - look for physical movement of people
• Expansion Diffusion - look for the idea spreading outward from origin
• Hierarchical Diffusion - the idea jumps from major nodes to smaller ones
• Contagious Diffusion - the idea spreads rapidly and evenly in all directions
• Stimulus Diffusion - the idea is adapted or modified as it spreads

Practice Examples of Diffusion

• Contagious Diffusion - the spread of a viral Tiktok trend across the globe
• Relocation Diffusion - the adoption of sushi in the US after Japanese immigrants introduced it
• Hierarchical Diffusion - the spread of democracy from the US to other countries after WWII
• Stimulus Diffusion - the adaptation of Indian curry dishes in the UK where the original recipe is modified to suit local tastes