Male Reproductive Disorders Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is a potential consequence of Sertoli cell tumors following castration?

  • Increased aggression in males
  • Feminization of males (correct)
  • Bacterial prostatitis
  • Enhanced libido

    • Which of the following conditions is diagnosed through the physical examination of cryptorchidism?

  • Increased blood flow to the testicles
  • Both testicles are equal in size
  • Presence of swelling in the scrotum
  • Undescended testicles may be palpated lateral to the prepuce (correct)

    • What is a common sign indicating prostatic abscesses?

  • Lack of clinical signs only
  • Fluid accumulation in embryologic remnants
  • Swollen testicles without pain
  • Obstruction of excretory ducts (correct)

    • What is a recommended treatment for paraprostatic cysts in the presence of septicemia?

    <p>Surgery along with antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is essential for diagnosing inflammatory diseases when performing laboratory tests?

    <p>Laboratory tests supporting diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does low alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in semen indicate?

    <p>Absence of epididymal fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is primarily associated with immune-mediated orchitis?

    <p>Breaking of the blood-testis barrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of infections leading to prostatic abscesses?

    <p>Development of paraprostatic cysts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tumor is most common in cryptorchid dogs?

    <p>Sertoli cell tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of idiopathic prostatitis?

    <p>Lack of clinical signs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does testicular torsion have on the testes?

    <p>Inflammation and ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which portion of the examination may reveal an enlargement suggestive of neoplasia?

    <p>Assessment of testicular size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a secondary abnormality observed in the epididymis?

    <p>Excessive ALP activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended treatment for Sertoli cell tumors?

    <p>Castration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Azoospermia can result from which of the following conditions?

    <p>Blockage of the epididymis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential symptom of testicular neoplasia?

    <p>Feminization and testicular atrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What technique should be utilized to minimize self-inflicted trauma during an orchidectomy?

    <p>Consider postoperative analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is not involved in the surgical procedure for cryptorchidism?

    <p>Transect and remove the inguinal testis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered a common complication after an orchidectomy?

    <p>Bruising and inflammation of the scrotum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential sign of a disorder of the penis and prepuce?

    <p>Preputial discharge accompanied by swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When making an incision for cryptorchidism, which area should be avoided?

    <p>Prescrotal area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proper closure technique after transecting the testis during an orchidectomy?

    <p>Close subcutaneous tissue and skin with absorbable sutures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic that should be noted during a physical examination of the penis in dogs?

    <p>The os penis should be palpable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is false regarding normal penile examination findings?

    <p>Sedation is never needed for examination in male cats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common cause of vaginal vaginitis in female dogs before their first estrus?

    <p>Juvenile vaginitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates a split estrus cycle in a female dog?

    <p>The dog returns to heat in about 4 to 6 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    To ensure a dog is suitable for breeding, which test is considered unnecessary if there are no clinical signs of infection?

    <p>Vaginal culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is used to confirm the time of ovulation in a dog with silent estrus?

    <p>Vaginal smears</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How often should frequently used male dogs be tested for brucellosis?

    <p>Every 6 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of shortened anestrus in female dogs?

    <p>Infertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential false-positive test result related to brucellosis testing in dogs?

    <p>20% false positives with rapid slide agglutination tests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of progesterone testing in dogs with split estrus cycles?

    <p>To accurately predict ovulation timing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of performing a progesterone determination in the context of artificial insemination?

    <p>To confirm that ovulation has occurred</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT mentioned for conducting artificial insemination?

    <p>Intradermally</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can cause failure of implantation after ovulation?

    <p>Presence of disease within the uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of progesterone during pregnancy?

    <p>To maintain pregnancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is used for terminating pregnancy in cases of mismating?

    <p>Prostaglandin F2α</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When does resorption of fetuses typically occur postovulation?

    <p>Up to day 38</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of premature luteolysis during pregnancy?

    <p>Loss of puppies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the longest phase of anestrus in female cats dependent on?

    <p>Daylight duration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason to administer topical or systemic antibiotics in females?

    <p>To treat secondary infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which surgical procedure is indicated when excessive perivulvar skin folds lead to secondary infections?

    <p>Episioplasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign is NOT typically associated with secondary infections in females?

    <p>Healthy mucosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure is involved in the surgical procedure during a cesarean section?

    <p>Uterine horn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the objective of breaking the amniotic sac during cesarean delivery?

    <p>To aid in the removal of the fetus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of vulvar stenosis that may require surgical intervention?

    <p>Narrowed vulvar opening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a consequence of a complete resection of an annular stricture?

    <p>Persistent urinary incontinence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is NOT part of the cesarean section procedure?

    <p>Manual extraction of the placenta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of using prostaglandins in breeding females?

    <p>It increases the risk of pyometra in future cycles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically precedes normal parturition in dogs?

    <p>Refusal of food and nesting behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true regarding uterine prolapse in animals?

    <p>It is rare but can occur postparturition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does uterine involution typically take to complete in dogs?

    <p>Usually by 6 weeks postpartum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common sign of subinvolution of placental sites?

    <p>Vaginal discharge that lasts more than 6 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neoplasm is most commonly identified in the cat's uterus?

    <p>Endometrial adenocarcinoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical clinical outcome when a dog experiences retained fetuses?

    <p>Development of uterine infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the delivery of a puppy or kitten during parturition?

    <p>It can happen within 2 to 4 hours after the start of contractions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is crucial for managing prostatic abscesses effectively?

    <p>Antibiotics and surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change might be observed due to idiopathic prostatitis?

    <p>Stiff gait and scrotal licking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which laboratory test is most useful in diagnosing neoplasia in the male reproductive system?

    <p>Semen analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign may indicate the presence of paraprostatic cysts?

    <p>Scrotal swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which complication is commonly associated with prolonged antibiotic use in cases of prostatic abscesses?

    <p>Antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates the necessity of surgery for a case of paraprostatic cysts?

    <p>Septicemia or peritonitis observed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In diagnosing cryptorchidism, where might undescended testicles be palpated?

    <p>Lateral to the prepuce or inguinal area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely cause of swelling and pain in cases diagnosed with prostatitis?

    <p>Infection leading to inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical duration of the diestrus phase in a non-pregnant female dog?

    <p>About 2 to 4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neoplasm is identified as the most common benign tumor in dogs?

    <p>Leiomyoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of a vaginal smear taken during the diestrus phase?

    <p>Change to parabasalar and intermediate cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is usually preferred for solitary transmissible venereal tumors (TVT)?

    <p>Surgical resection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How often does the abnormal estrous cycle manifest as prolonged anestrus in dogs?

    <p>12 months or longer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a typical case of transmissible venereal tumor (TVT) in younger dogs?

    <p>Friable cauliflower-like lesions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the typical levels of progesterone before ovulation?

    <p>Progesterone levels gradually increase leading to LH release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true regarding the treatment plan for multiple TVT cases?

    <p>Chemotherapy with vincristine is required</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What test can be used to predict pregnancy after day 26 postovulation?

    <p>Serum relaxin concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors can indicate conception failure in dogs?

    <p>Inadequate semen production and improper breeding methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average lifespan of fresh semen in the uterus and oviducts of dogs?

    <p>4 to 6 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is considered unreliable for determining the time of ovulation?

    <p>Radiography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of vaginal bleeding in young female dogs during their first estrous cycle?

    <p>Hormonal imbalance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What minimum duration of anestrus is generally required for estrus induction?

    <p>4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential impact of using frozen semen for artificial insemination?

    <p>Decreased sperm viability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be checked in the stud dog if there are concerns about conception failure?

    <p>Semen quality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common clinical sign of subinvolution of placental sites in dogs?

    <p>Heavy bleeding lasting longer than 6 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which infectious disease is most significant in causing abortion during pregnancy in dogs?

    <p>Canine herpesvirus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary treatment for uterine prolapse occurring postparturition?

    <p>Manual reduction of the prolapsed tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tumor is most commonly found in female dogs and associated with vaginal discharge?

    <p>Endometrial adenocarcinoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential complication of using prostaglandins in breeding females?

    <p>Increased risk of pyometra in future cycles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following clinical signs is least likely to indicate a prostate gland disorder?

    <p>Sudden weight gain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable characteristic of normal parturition in dogs?

    <p>Delivery can occur rapidly, or may have several hours between births</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of collecting an ejaculate specimen for testing?

    <p>It can only provide samples for cytology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition could interfere with the interpretation of microbiology results from prostatic wash specimens?

    <p>Concurrent bacterial cystitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a typical consequence of uterine neoplasia in dogs and cats?

    <p>Vaginal discharge or bleeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does uterine involution typically take in dogs postpartum?

    <p>6 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During a physical examination, which characteristic should be expected for a normally functioning prostate gland?

    <p>Symmetric and moveable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason for performing a rectal examination when assessing prostate health?

    <p>To palpate ventrally for size and symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements regarding prostatic wash specimens is correct?

    <p>They are advantageous but may not localize disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a systemic sign associated with prostate gland disorders?

    <p>Excessive aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one disadvantage of rectal massage in prostate examination?

    <p>It may rupture a prostatic abscess</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended treatment of choice for squamous metaplasia caused by estrogen stimulation from an exogenous source?

    <p>Castration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bacterial infections are most commonly associated with prostatic infections?

    <p>Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following antibiotics is NOT considered effective for treating prostatic infections?

    <p>Vancomycin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure should be avoided during surgical procedures on the prostate to maintain micturition and continence?

    <p>Hypogastric and pelvic nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does the prostate gland begin to move entirely within the abdomen of a male dog?

    <p>10 years of age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions is commonly signaled by urinary incontinence post-total prostatectomy?

    <p>Loss of bladder support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organism is NOT typically associated with fungal prostatitis?

    <p>Mycoplasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum duration for which antibiotics should be administered for effective treatment of prostatic infections?

    <p>4 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is true?

    <p>Dihydrotestosterone is the main androgen promoting hyperplasia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of metastatic prostatic neoplasia?

    <p>Metastasis commonly occurs to lymph nodes, bones, and organs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following treatment options is NOT recommended if metastasis is present?

    <p>Intraoperative radiation therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the contraindications for using delmadinone acetate in canine patients?

    <p>It is contraindicated for breeding dogs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might characteristically result from cystic hyperplasia?

    <p>Fluid-filled cysts from obstruction of ducts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is considered the most accurate for biopsy if ultrasound is not available?

    <p>Laparotomy biopsy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common complication associated with prostatectomy?

    <p>Urinary incontinence and urethral stricture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What medication can be used in breeding dogs for managing prostatic conditions without loss of fertility?

    <p>Megestrol acetate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can result from vulvar stenosis?

    <p>Dystocia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary treatment approach for clitoral hypertrophy due to hyperadrenocorticism?

    <p>Hormonal therapy to normalize adrenal function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical finding might suggest persistent vertical bands of tissue in vestibulovaginal stenosis?

    <p>Developing urinary tract infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which diagnostic method is essential for identifying the reason behind an enlarged vulva in dogs?

    <p>Vaginal cytology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common association with vestibulovaginal stenosis?

    <p>Incomplete fusion of paramesonephric ducts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not commonly seen as a sign of clitoral hypertrophy?

    <p>Expanding vulvar orifice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential underlying cause must be identified when treating vulvar enlargement?

    <p>Presence of cystic ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might indicate estrogenic stimulation in female dogs?

    <p>Increased presence of superficial squamous cells in vaginal cytology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common systemic clinical sign associated with prostate gland disorders?

    <p>Depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique provides samples suitable for bacterial culture of the prostate?

    <p>Prostatic wash specimens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant limitation of using ejaculate specimens for diagnosing prostate disorders?

    <p>Animal must be compliant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential complication of rectal massage during prostatic examination?

    <p>Prostatic abscess rupture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might occur during specimen collection that adversely affects microbiology results?

    <p>Urine or urethral contamination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a normally examined prostate gland?

    <p>It is bi-lobed and movable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign can indicate a severe issue in prostate health?

    <p>Stranguria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What adverse effect can result from a concurrent bacterial cystitis during prostatic examinations?

    <p>False positives in bacterial culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which procedure is deemed necessary for managing prostatic abscesses?

    <p>Surgical intervention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common physical finding that suggests testicular abnormalities?

    <p>Presence of only one testicle in the scrotum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is associated with idiopathic prostatitis?

    <p>Use of antibiotics and corticosteroids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is indicated by the presence of paraprostatic cysts?

    <p>Fluid accumulation near the prostate gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of using topical or systemic antibiotics in females?

    <p>To treat secondary infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What diagnostic test aids in determining infertility?

    <p>Laboratory tests evaluating inflammatory diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which surgical procedure is preferred for addressing excessive perivulvar skin folds that can result in secondary infections?

    <p>Episioplasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign is commonly associated with secondary infections in female dogs?

    <p>Chronic vaginitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might the presence of an enlarged testicle indicate?

    <p>Potential neoplasia or inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is essential when performing a cesarean section to ensure the safe removal of a fetus?

    <p>Breaking the amniotic sac before extraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which clinical sign is commonly observed in cases of idiopathic prostatitis?

    <p>Inflammation without specific cause</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What surgical consideration is important for treating cryptorchidism?

    <p>Appropriate incision location to avoid injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition might necessitate complete resection of an annular stricture?

    <p>Vulvar stenosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure's involvement is crucial during a cesarean section procedure?

    <p>Uterine body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of juvenile vaginitis in female dogs before their first estrus?

    <p>It may resolve without treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of prolonged or untreated cystitis in female dogs?

    <p>Chronic vaginitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which option correctly describes a split estrus cycle?

    <p>The bitch enters proestrus but does not ovulate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which option best describes the purpose of clamping and transecting umbilical vessels during a cesarean delivery?

    <p>To facilitate fetal detachment from the mother</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is associated with an increased risk of infertility if the breeding cycle is less than 4 months?

    <p>Shortened anestrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does progesterone testing play in female dogs with split cycles?

    <p>It is used to confirm ovulation timing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of mibolerone when given daily to a female dog?

    <p>It delays the onset of the estrous cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What test is recommended for female dogs before each mating?

    <p>Brucellosis testing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential issue with the rapid slide agglutination test used for brucellosis testing?

    <p>It can produce 20% false-positive results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may be indicated if a female dog experiences prolonged estrus?

    <p>Potential ovarian cyst formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the duration of diestrus in a non-pregnant female?

    <p>Approximately 2 to 4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the predominant neoplasm found in female dogs?

    <p>Leiomyoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tumor is primarily transmitted through sexual contact in dogs?

    <p>Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of the vaginal smear during diestrus?

    <p>Dominance of parabasalar and intermediate cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common malignant neoplasm observed in female dogs?

    <p>Leiomyosarcoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is preferred for multiple occurrences of transmissible venereal tumors (TVT)?

    <p>Chemotherapy with vincristine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can lead to prolonged anestrus in female dogs?

    <p>Hyperthyroidism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of discharge associated with changes occurring in the vulva during the ovulation phase?

    <p>Clear to slightly bloody</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by the inability of the penis to extend out of the prepuce?

    <p>Persistent penile frenulum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions occurs due to abnormal closure of the urethral tube?

    <p>Hypospadia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complication can arise from foreign bodies lodged in the prepuce?

    <p>Balanoposthitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tumor is associated with the transmissible venereal tumor in dogs?

    <p>Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of balanoposthitis?

    <p>Bacterial infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which circumstance might the treatment for persistent penile frenulum be necessary?

    <p>To allow penile extension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the condition of hypospadia?

    <p>It results from an androgen receptor defect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tumor is more common in the penile region of dogs?

    <p>Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential complication may arise from an orchidectomy in a cat?

    <p>Bruising of the scrotum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique is appropriate for ligating the spermatic cord during an orchidectomy?

    <p>Double-ligature using absorbable material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common sign that may indicate disorders of the penis and prepuce?

    <p>Discharge consistency changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following steps is essential in the surgical procedure for cryptorchidism?

    <p>Locating the intraabdominal testis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign should be present during the examination of the penis in dogs?

    <p>Moist and light pink appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a proper closure technique after performing a transection of the testis during orchidectomy?

    <p>Absorbable sutures for subcutaneous tissue and skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be avoided during the incision for a cryptorchidism procedure?

    <p>Cutting the prepuce</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be noted during a physical examination of the prepuce?

    <p>Free movement and easy extrusion of the penis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormonal stimulation method can induce ovulation aside from breeding?

    <p>Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary duration of the diestrus phase if the female is not pregnant?

    <p>45 to 50 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can estrus stimulation be achieved aside from exposure to a male?

    <p>Administration of follicle-stimulating hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true regarding the estrus phase in females?

    <p>Ovulation occurs during this phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is generally required to increase the chance of pregnancy during the estrus phase?

    <p>Multiple breedings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical duration of the interestrous period if breeding does not occur?

    <p>5 to 14 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What procedure is often used to collect semen for artificial insemination?

    <p>Electroejaculation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an effect of progesterone concentration in the diestrus phase if the female is pregnant?

    <p>Stable levels lasting about 60 to 65 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following approaches is generally NOT utilized for obtaining biopsy specimens from the prostate?

    <p>Vaginal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complication is commonly associated with prostatectomy?

    <p>Urinary incontinence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment is effective in managing benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) without loss of fertility in breeding dogs?

    <p>Finasteride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement regarding metastasis in prostatic neoplasia is accurate?

    <p>Metastasis occurs mainly to bones and organs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following treatments is recommended for prostatic tumors when metastases are present?

    <p>No treatment is recommended</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant disadvantage of using estrogens in the treatment of prostatic disorders?

    <p>Avoided due to potential increase in BPH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which androgen inhibitor is contraindicated in breeding dogs?

    <p>Delmadinone acetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What prostate pathology is often associated with obstruction of glandular excretory ducts?

    <p>Cystic hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary blood supply to the ovaries?

    <p>Ovarian arterio-venous complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of incising the uterus in an avascular area during a cesarean section?

    <p>To reduce the risk of bleeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligament extends between the last two ribs and the ovary?

    <p>Suspensory ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done after removing the fetus during a cesarean section?

    <p>Remove the amniotic sac and tie off the umbilical vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a recognized complication associated with cesarean sections?

    <p>Puppies needing a respiratory stimulant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended technique for closing the uterus after a cesarean section?

    <p>Inverting suture pattern with absorbable material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What incision is recommended to avoid damaging the uterus during a cesarean section?

    <p>Ventral midline incision with cautious approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligament passes through the inguinal canal in relation to the uterus?

    <p>Round ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition occurs when the penis cannot retract into the prepuce?

    <p>Paraphimosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a potential underlying cause leading to penile hypoplasia?

    <p>Genetic abnormalities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which emergency treatment is recommended for priapism?

    <p>Frequent application of sterile lubricant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results from too small a preputial opening?

    <p>Phimosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might be necessary to prevent licking in cases of paraphimosis treatment?

    <p>Use of an Elizabethan collar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of untreated paraphimosis?

    <p>Ischemia and necrosis of the penis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organism is associated with penile disorders due to infections?

    <p>Blastomyces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible treatment for mucosal damage to the penis following injuries?

    <p>Topical antibiotic cream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a nonopaque second fraction in semen analysis indicate?

    <p>Oligospermia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by the presence of testes and external or internal female genitalia in dogs?

    <p>Male pseudohermaphroditism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of infectious orchitis-epididymitis?

    <p>It can be caused by hematogenous spread.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should the percentage of morphologic abnormalities in sperm ideally be?

    <p>Less than 20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common infectious cause of orchitis in dogs?

    <p>Brucella canis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method used to evaluate sperm count in an ejaculate?

    <p>Hemocytometer counting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What growth percentage of motile sperm is generally considered normal?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition leads to sterility in dogs due to undescended testes?

    <p>Bilateral cryptorchidism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure connects the ovaries to the abdominal wall?

    <p>Suspensory ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vessel primarily supplies blood to the uterus?

    <p>Uterine branch of the internal iliac artery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is performed before returning the uterus to the abdominal cavity during a cesarean section?

    <p>Lavage of the uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be avoided during the incision phase of a cesarean section?

    <p>Lacerating the large uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of suture material is recommended for closing the uterus during surgery?

    <p>Absorbable suture material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligament extends from the ovary to the uterine horn?

    <p>Proper ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complication may occur in puppies due to the anesthetic agents used during surgery?

    <p>Respiratory depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the abdominal anatomy connects the uterus to the abdominal wall?

    <p>The broad ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason that topical or systemic antibiotics are administered to females?

    <p>To treat secondary infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended surgical procedure when excessive perivulvar skin folds lead to secondary infections?

    <p>Episioplasty to excise excessive skin folds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can be closely associated with the clinical signs of secondary infections in females?

    <p>Cystitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure is least likely to be involved during a cesarean section procedure?

    <p>Ovarian arteriovenous complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the objective of breaking the amniotic sac during a cesarean delivery?

    <p>To facilitate easier fetal extraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential complication may arise following the complete resection of an annular stricture?

    <p>Excessive scar tissue formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During a cesarean section, what is the correct action after clamping the umbilical vessels?

    <p>Transect the umbilical vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical region should be prioritized for incision during a cesarean section?

    <p>Ventral midline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for conducting vaginal cytology in diagnosing the cause of vaginal bleeding in young bitches?

    <p>To determine estrogen levels based on cell types</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following methods is NOT helpful in diagnosing pregnancy in dogs?

    <p>Measurement of serum progesterone concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does improper timing of breeding have on conception rates in dogs?

    <p>It may lead to failure of conception altogether</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of monitoring serum relaxin concentration in female dogs?

    <p>To predict pregnancy status</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common oversight in artificial insemination practices that could affect conception rates?

    <p>Inseminating when the female is not in estrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to assess the quality of semen before breeding?

    <p>To guarantee sufficient sperm production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a critical factor in inducing estrus in female dogs that must be maintained?

    <p>A minimum duration of anestrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common misunderstanding about breeding methods could lead to conception failure?

    <p>Believing that a 'tie' is necessary for breeding success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of infection is most commonly associated with prostatic hyperplasia?

    <p>Staphylococcus infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended duration for antibiotic treatment in prostatic infections?

    <p>4 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What surgical structure is most at risk during procedures involving the prostate due to its proximity?

    <p>Hypogastric and pelvic nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a common cause of prostatic infections?

    <p>Malassezia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common initial treatment option for prostatic infections?

    <p>Enrofloxacin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical change occurs to the prostate gland in males by the age of 10 years?

    <p>It transitions entirely to the pelvic cavity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antibiotic class is emphasized for effectively penetrating the prostate?

    <p>Lipid-soluble antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant potential outcome of prostatectomy performed due to neoplasia?

    <p>Common risk of urinary incontinence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary hormonal trigger for ovulation in female animals during estrus?

    <p>Luteinizing hormone (LH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the duration of diestrus in a female that is not pregnant?

    <p>45 to 50 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is employed for ovulation induction apart from hormonal stimulation?

    <p>Vaginal stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically observed during interestrous in female animals?

    <p>A 5 to 14-day interval before proestrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the methods used to stimulate estrus in female animals?

    <p>FSH administration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of artificial insemination, how is semen generally collected?

    <p>With an electroejaculator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition typically does not involve vaginal bleeding during its reproductive cycle?

    <p>Estrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the factors influencing the duration of the anestrous phase in female cats?

    <p>Length of daylight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the advantages of collecting ejaculate specimens from dogs?

    <p>Specimens can be used for bacterial culture and the technique is safe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During a rectal examination, which characteristic indicates a normal prostate gland?

    <p>Symmetrical and bi-lobed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential disadvantage of using prostatic wash specimens for microbiology?

    <p>Contamination from urine or urethra can skew results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a symptom that may indicate the presence of prostatic disorders?

    <p>Stranguria and urinary incontinence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor can significantly hinder the interpretation of microbiology results from prostatic wash specimens?

    <p>Concurrent bacterial cystitis during collection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common clinical sign might indicate the presence of a prostatic abscess?

    <p>Hematuria and blood dripping from prepuce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions could complicate the physical examination findings of the prostate gland?

    <p>Presence of lymphadenopathy or swollen lymph nodes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely observation in a patient suffering from idiopathic prostatitis?

    <p>Clinical signs mirroring bacterial prostatitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be expected when palpating the prostate during a physical examination?

    <p>The prostate should be smooth without any nodules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the physical examination of a male with cryptorchidism, where might undescended testicles often be found?

    <p>Lateral to the prepuce or in the inguinal area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of pain and inflammation that might be observed in a patient?

    <p>Torsion, trauma, or immune-mediated disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What diagnostic approach is primarily used to identify prostate-related inflammatory diseases?

    <p>Laboratory tests for neoplasia, infection, and infertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is indicated by an enlargement of one testicle during physical examination?

    <p>Neoplasia, granuloma, or torsion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of paraprostatic cysts, which treatment is the most appropriate if septicemia is present?

    <p>Surgery plus antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential result of prostatic abscesses if they remain untreated?

    <p>Obstruction of excretory ducts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of disease may require the use of corticosteroids in conjunction with antibiotics?

    <p>Chronic prostatitis cases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step should be undertaken to minimize self-inflicted trauma during surgical procedures on the testes?

    <p>Perform the procedure with the parietal vaginal tunic intact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be observed during a physical examination of the penis in dogs?

    <p>A moist, light pink penis with a palpable os penis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common complication following orchidectomy in cats?

    <p>Hemorrhage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of double-ligating the spermatic cord during surgery?

    <p>To prevent excessive bleeding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During cryptorchidism surgery, what should be avoided to prevent complications?

    <p>Making an incision through the prepuce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a typical sign of disorders of the penis and prepuce in clinical assessments?

    <p>Greenish discharge may be normal in dogs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proper approach to closing the incision after removing a testis during orchidectomy?

    <p>Close the subcutaneous tissue and skin using absorbable sutures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure should be examined during rectal examination in cases of penile disorders?

    <p>Prostate gland for abnormalities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of infectious disease is known to cause abortion in dogs?

    <p>Brucella canis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical duration for complete uterine involution in dogs following parturition?

    <p>6 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition may be indicated by persistent bleeding for longer than 6 weeks postpartum?

    <p>Subinvolution of placental sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common tumor type found in female cats regarding uterine neoplasia?

    <p>Endometrial adenocarcinoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary treatment option for a uterine prolapse that is ulcerated or necrotic?

    <p>Manual reduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign is typically NOT associated with a normal parturition process in dogs?

    <p>Delivery of the first puppy within 12 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most important viral infection in cats that can lead to reproductive issues?

    <p>Feline herpesvirus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may occur as a consequence of prostaglandin usage in breeding females?

    <p>Increased risk of pyometra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition can result from incomplete removal of ovarian tissue during an ovariohysterectomy?

    <p>Ovarian remnant syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which surgical intervention is indicated for treating ovarian neoplasia in dogs?

    <p>Ovariohysterectomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical sign is most commonly associated with granulosa cell tumors in dogs?

    <p>Persistent estrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the likely outcome for a dog experiencing dystocia due to its breed characteristics?

    <p>Increased likelihood of cesarean section</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common factor that may indicate uterine inertia during labor?

    <p>Increased progesterone levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common sign observed during the delivery of puppies that may indicate complications?

    <p>Dark green discharge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic clinical feature of ovarian remnant syndrome in spayed females?

    <p>Signs of estrus recuring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of ovaries neoplasm is most commonly noted in cats?

    <p>Granulosa cell tumors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the duration of diestrus if a dog is not pregnant?

    <p>2 to 4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tumor is most commonly associated with benign neoplasia?

    <p>Leiomyoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about transmissible venereal tumor (TVT) is true?

    <p>TVT can appear on various mucosal surfaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most effective treatment for multiple transmissible venereal tumors?

    <p>Chemotherapy with vincristine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature observed in a vaginal smear during diestrus?

    <p>Appearance of parabasalar and intermediate cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone level decreases gradually during diestrus if not pregnant?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary blood supply to the ovaries?

    <p>Ovarian arterio-venous complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by a persistent lack of estrus cycling?

    <p>Prolonged anestrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition may indicate prolonged anestrus if it lasts longer than 12 months?

    <p>Abnormal thyroid function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When performing a cesarean section, why is it important to incise in an avascular area of the uterus?

    <p>To prevent excessive bleeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for using aseptic technique during artificial insemination?

    <p>To prevent infections from entering the reproductive tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligament connects the ovary to the uterine horn?

    <p>Proper ligament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique is crucial before returning the uterus to the abdominal cavity after a cesarean section?

    <p>Lavage of the uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is secreted by the ovary during pregnancy to maintain it?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method of artificial insemination involves direct insertion into the uterus?

    <p>Surgical insemination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential complication following a cesarean section due to anesthetic agents?

    <p>Puppy lethargy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the factors that can cause fetal resorption during early pregnancy?

    <p>Genetic abnormalities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical area should be carefully avoided when making a ventral midline incision for a cesarean section?

    <p>Over the uterine fundus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a consequence of premature luteolysis in a pregnant female?

    <p>Premature loss of fetuses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the surgical procedure for a cesarean section?

    <p>Incise the abdominal wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using absorbable suture material for closing the uterus after a cesarean section?

    <p>To eliminate the need for suture removal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is necessary to confirm after administering drugs to lyse the corpus luteum?

    <p>All fetuses have been passed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the estrous cycle is an estrus defined for female cats?

    <p>Estrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended action to take when a female cat refuses mating?

    <p>Change her environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Male Reproductive Disorders

    • Infertility is common and may not be diagnosed clinically.
    • Pain and inflammation can be caused by:
      • Infection
      • Trauma
      • Torsion
      • Immune-mediated disease
    • Swelling or a stiff gait may be observed.
    • Licking of the scrotum may be observed.
    • Feminization can result from Sertoli cell tumors.
    • Idiopathic prostatitis has an unknown cause, but its signs are similar to bacterial prostatitis.
    • Castration is probably beneficial for idiopathic prostatitis.
    • Antibiotics, corticosteroids, anticholinergics, and muscle relaxants are used to treat idiopathic prostatitis.
    • Paraprostatic cysts result from fluid accumulation in embryologic remnants.
    • Surgery is recommended for paraprostatic cysts.
    • Antibiotics may be needed if there is septicemia or peritonitis associated with paraprostatic cysts.
    • Prostatic abscesses occur due to infection with obstruction of excretory ducts or secondarily infected cysts.
    • Surgery is recommended for prostatic abscesses.
    • Antibiotics may be needed if there is septicemia or peritonitis associated with prostatic abscesses.
    • Testicular neoplasia is common in dogs and uncommon in cats.
    • Cryptorchid dogs have an increased risk of testicular neoplasia.
    • Primary testicular tumors include:
      • Sertoli cell tumors
      • Interstitial cell tumors
      • Seminoma
    • Testicular tumors typically metastasize slowly and are often an incidental finding in older dogs.
    • Sertoli cell tumors can cause feminization, including:
      • Hair loss
      • Testicular atrophy
      • Squamous metaplasia of the prostate
    • Castration is the treatment of choice for testicular neoplasia.
    • Trauma can lead to inflammation or ischemia of the testes
    • Testicular torsion can occur in descended or undescended testes.
    • Closed or open techniques can be used to correct testicular torsion.
    • Double ligation of the spermatic cord is performed with absorbable material.
    • Cryptorchidism can be corrected via surgical removal.
    • Double ligation of the vessels and ductus deferens is performed.
    • Complications of orchidectomy include:
      • Bruising
      • Inflammation of the scrotum
      • Hemorrhage
      • Infection

    Female Reproductive Disorders

    • Juvenile vaginitis generally occurs in female dogs before the first estrus.
    • Juvenile vaginitis typically resolves without treatment.
    • Bacterial vaginitis is uncommon but may occur secondary to urinary tract infection.
    • Viral vaginitis is caused by herpesvirus and can result in:
      • Infertility
      • Abortion
      • Neonatal death
    • Split estrus cycle results in the bitch entering proestrus but not ovulating.
    • Progesterone testing is used to determine ovulation in dogs with split cycles.
    • Silent estrus occurs when a bitch ovulates with no apparent signs of estrus.
    • Vaginal smears and serum progesterone determinations are helpful in determining the time of ovulation.
    • Shortened anestrus occurs when the breeding cycle is less than 4 months.
    • Infertility is common with a shortened anestrus.
    • Mibolerone can be used to delay the onset of the estrous cycle.
    • Prolonged estrus can occur if the female refuses the male.
    • Serum progesterone determination is used to ensure ovulation has taken place during prolonged estrus.
    • Implantation failure can be caused by disease within the uterus.
    • Resorption of fetuses can occur up to day 38 post-ovulation.
    • Resorption and death of fetuses can be caused by:
      • Genetics
      • Medications
      • Disease
      • Toxins
    • Premature luteolysis can result in premature loss of puppies.
    • Injectable progesterone is used to treat premature luteolysis.
    • Prostaglandin F2a or cabergoline (antiprolactin drug) are used to lyse the corpus luteum and terminate pregnancy.
    • Prebreeding evaluation should include:
      • Physical examination of both male and female
      • Parasite screening
      • Current vaccinations
      • Heartworm preventative
      • Brucellosis testing
    • Brucellosis testing of the female should be performed before each mating.
    • Frequently used males should be tested every 6 months for brucellosis.
    • Rapid slide agglutination test is commonly used for brucellosis testing but can have 20% false-positives.
    • Artificial insemination can be performed using an insemination rod.
    • Aseptic technique and sterile gloves should be used for artificial insemination.
    • Artificial insemination can also be performed transcervically or directly into the uterus.
    • Drugs can be used to terminate pregnancy due to mismating.
    • Prostaglandin F2a or cabergoline are used to terminate pregnancy.

    Female Cat Reproductive Disorders

    • Anestrus in cats is seasonally polyestrus.
    • Anestrus is longest when daylight is at a minimum.
    • Proestrus lasts 1 to 2 days.
    • Ovulation in cats occurs 24 to 36 hours after mating.

    Prostatic Disorders

    • Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland in male dogs
    • Idiopathic prostatitis is when the cause is unknown but signs are similar to bacterial prostatitis
    • Prostatic cysts are adjacent to the prostate gland and result from fluid accumulation in embryologic remnants
    • Prostatic abscesses occur as a sequel to infection with obstruction of excretory ducts or as a secondary infection of cysts
    • Castration is a potential treatment option for prostatic disorders

    Breeding Diseases

    • Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Brucella canis
    • Pyometra is a life-threatening uterine infection
    • Abortion can be caused by infectious diseases like Brucella canis and herpesvirus in dogs, and feline panleukopenia virus and herpesvirus in cats
    • Uterine prolapse is a rare condition that can occur after parturition
    • Subinvolution of placental sites is a condition where the uterus fails to fully involute after parturition
    • Uterine neoplasia is rare in dogs and cats

    Estrous Cycle

    • Estrus is the period of sexual receptivity in female dogs
    • Proestrus is the period leading up to estrus when vaginal discharge is present
    • Estrus lasts about 6 days and is characterized by a soft vulva and a clear discharge
    • Diestrus is the period after estrus when progesterone levels decrease
    • Persistent anestrus is failure to cycle and can be investigated by evaluating thyroid function, cortisol production, and progesterone concentration
    • Prolonged anestrus is when the estrous cycle lasts longer than 12 months and can be investigated by evaluating thyroid function, cortisol production, and progesterone concentration

    Pregnancy

    • Pregnancy diagnosis can be achieved through ultrasound, palpation, serum relaxin concentration, and radiography
    • Estrus induction can be achieved through cabergoline and deslorelin
    • Artificial insemination requires viable and normal sperm

    Uterine Diseases

    • Pyometra is a life-threatening uterine infection that can occur in both pregnant and non-pregnant females
    • Uterine prolapse is a rare condition that can occur after parturition
    • Subinvolution of placental sites is a condition where the uterus fails to fully involute after parturition
    • Uterine neoplasia is rare in dogs and cats
    • Leiomyomas are the most common uterine neoplasm
    • Leiomyosarcomas are the most common malignant uterine neoplasm

    Vaginal and Vulvar Disease

    • Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina and is common in young bitches during their first estrous cycle
    • Vulvar stenosis is a narrowing of the vulva that can occur due to trauma or infection
    • Episioplasty is a surgical procedure to excise excessive perivulvar skin folds and is treatment of choice for secondary infections

    Other Conditions

    • Cryptorchidism is a condition where one or both testicles fail to descend into the scrotum
    • Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT) is a proliferative tumor transmitted by sexual contact between animals
    • Conception failure can be caused by poor semen quality, ovulation failure, improper timing of breeding, and improper breeding methods

    Prostate Gland Disorders

    • Clinical signs of prostate disorders vary. Systemic signs include depression, anorexia, and vomiting. Hematuria and blood dripping from the prepuce are the most common clinical signs.
    • Rectal examination is essential to palpate the prostate for size, location, symmetry, and pain.
    • Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common prostate disorder. Dihydrotestosterone promotes hyperplasia.
    • Castration is an effective treatment for BPH.
    • Megestrol acetate or finasteride can be used in breeding dogs without a loss of fertility.
    • Estrogens should not be used to treat BPH.
    • Delmadinone acetate, an androgen inhibitor, can be used but is contraindicated for breeding dogs.
    • Cystic hyperplasia is characterized by multiple fluid-filled cysts resulting from obstruction of glandular excretory ducts. It is usually associated with BPH and squamous metaplasia.
    • Squamous metaplasia is caused by estrogen stimulation from an exogenous source or a Sertoli cell tumor. Castration is the treatment of choice.
    • Prostatic infection is usually ascending and caused by prostatic hyperplasia or cysts, urinary tract infections, altered urine flow, urethral abnormalities, or immune dysfunction.
    • Common causes of prostatic infection include Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, Proteus mirabilis, Streptococcus, and Mycoplasma.
    • Fungal organisms such as Blastomyces, Cryptococcus, or Coccidioides can also cause prostatitis.
    • Antibiotics for treatment should be lipid soluble to penetrate the prostate. Effective antibiotics include trimethoprim-sulfa, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, and oleandomycin.
    • A good initial treatment choice for prostatic infection is trimethoprim-sulfa, enrofloxacin, or chloramphenicol.
    • Evaluate patients for septicemia or peritonitis.
    • Perform abdominal ultrasound or obtain radiographs to detect any complications.
    • Prostatic neoplasia is most commonly caused by adenocarcinoma and transitional cell carcinoma.
    • Castration does not prevent the development of prostatic tumors.
    • Metastasis to lymph nodes, bones, and organs is common with prostatic neoplasia.
    • Intraoperative radiation therapy is the treatment of choice for prostatic neoplasia, but not recommended if metastases are present.
    • Prostatectomy for prostatic neoplasia is associated with complications including urinary incontinence and urethral stricture.
    • Castration offers questionable benefit for prostatic neoplasia, and chemotherapy is not effective.
    • Total androgen blockade with luteinizing hormone (LH)-releasing hormone, or ketoconazole, can be effective by blocking androgen synthesis.

    Disorders of the Testes

    • Clinical signs of testicular disorders include testicular swelling, pain, atrophy, or cryptorchidism.
    • Cryptorchidism is a common disorder characterized by failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum.
    • Treatment for cryptorchidism is unilateral or bilateral castration.
    • Testicular torsion occurs when the spermatic cord twists, restricting blood flow to the testes.
    • Early treatment and surgery are necessary to prevent testicular necrosis.
    • Testicular neoplasia is most commonly seen in older dogs.
    • Treatment for testicular neoplasia includes surgical removal of the affected testes, often followed by chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

    Disorders of the Ovaries

    • Clinical signs of ovarian disorders are often related to hormonal imbalances, such as menstrual irregularities, infertility, and behavioral changes.
    • Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs that can develop on the ovaries.
    • Ovarian cysts can be treated surgically, often through ovariohysterectomy.
    • Ovarian tumor can lead to various hormonal imbalances and clinical signs.
    • Ovarian remnant syndrome occurs after ovariohysterectomy when a small piece of ovarian tissue is left behind, continue to produce hormones.
    • Treatment for ovarian tumor or remnant syndrome may involve medication, surgery, or radiation therapy.

    Disorders of the Uterus

    • Pyometra is a common disorder characterized by uterine infection and accumulation of pus within the uterus.
    • Pyometra is treated with surgery (ovariohysterectomy) and antibiotics.
    • Metritis is a uterine infection without the accumulation of pus.
    • Metritis is treated with antibiotics.
    • Uterine inertia is the inability of the uterus to contract effectively during labor.
    • Treatment for uterine inertia may involve medication, assisted delivery, or cesarean section.
    • Dystocia is difficult or obstructed labor.
    • Treatment for dystocia may include medication, manual assistance for delivery, or cesarean section.
    • Retained placenta is a condition where part or all of the placenta remains in the uterus after birth.
    • Treatment for retained placenta typically involves manual removal, surgical removal, or medication.
    • Uterine prolapse is a rare condition where the uterus falls out of the vaginal opening.
    • Treatment for uterine prolapse involves manually reducing the prolapsed tissue or removing it if ulcerated or necrotic.
    • Subinvolution of placental sites is a condition where the placental attachment sites on the uterus do not shrink and disappear as they normally do after birth.
    • Treatment for subinvolution of placental sites may involve medication or surgical removal.
    • Uterine neoplasia is rare but can occur in both dogs and cats.
    • Treatment for uterine neoplasia may include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

    Disorders of the Vulva and Vagina

    • Vulvar and vaginal disorders can affect the reproductive function and health of female dogs and cats.
    • Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina, often caused by bacterial or fungal infection.
    • Juvenile vaginitis is a common type of vaginitis in young female dogs.
    • Bacterial vaginitis may resolve without treatment, but can sometimes be treated with antibiotics.
    • Clitoral hypertrophy can be caused by hyperadrenocorticism, exposure to anabolic steroids, or disorders of sexual differentiation.
    • Treatment for clitoral hypertrophy involves treating the underlying cause and any secondary problems.
    • Vulvar enlargement is a common sign of estrogenic stimulation.
    • Persistent vulvar enlargement may suggest cystic ovaries, an ovarian tumor, or an ovarian remnant.
    • Treatment for vulvar enlargement involves identifying and treating the underlying cause.

    Prostate Gland Disorders

    • The occurrence of prostate gland disorders leads to a variety of clinical signs, including depression, loss of appetite, vomiting, blood in the urine, and blood dripping from the penis.
    • During a physical evaluation, a rectal examination is essential to assess the prostate gland for size, positioning, symmetry, tenderness, and mobility.
    • The prostate gland is typically symmetrical, positioned within the pelvis, movable, and should not be painful.
    • Prostatic disorders can be categorized into Bacterial prostatitis, Idiopathic prostatitis, Paraprostatic cysts, and Prostatic abscesses.
    • Bacterial prostatitis presents with inflammation and swelling of the prostate gland due to bacterial infection. It can cause discomfort and difficulty urinating.
    • Idiopathic prostatitis has the same symptoms as bacterial prostatitis but the cause is unknown.
    • Paraprostatic cysts are fluid-filled sacs near the prostate that may create discomfort.
    • Prostatic abscesses result from the formation of pus within the prostate, a consequence of infection and blockage of excretory ducts.
    • Treatment for bacterial prostatitis typically involves antibiotics.
    • Surgical intervention is suggested for paraprostatic cysts and prostatic abscesses.

    Testicular Disorders

    • Infertility is common in male dogs.
    • Inflammation and pain in the testicles can result from infection, injury, twisting (torsion), or autoimmune conditions.
    • Swelling of one testicle may indicate a tumor, a fibrous growth (granuloma), a fluid-filled cyst (spermatocele), varicose veins (varicocele), inflammation, or twisting (torsion).
    • A cryptorchid testicle is a testicle that has not descended into the scrotum. It is typically found near the penis or in the groin area.

    Diseases of the Uterus and Ovaries

    • The uterus and ovaries play critical roles in a female dog's reproductive cycle and hormone production.
    • Understanding the stages of the estrous cycle is essential for managing reproduction and diagnosing reproductive disorders.
    • The estrous cycle in a female dog is divided into four stages: proestrus, estrus, diestrus, and anestrus.
    • Proestrus is characterized by bloody vaginal discharge and swelling of the vulva.
    • Estrus is the period of ovulation, indicated by a clear or slightly bloody vaginal discharge.
    • Diestrus follows ovulation and lasts for 2-4 months if the female is not pregnant or 8 weeks if pregnant.
    • Anestrus is the period of sexual inactivity when hormone levels are low. This stage can last up to 4 months.
    • There are several potential disruptions to the estrous cycle, including persistent anestrus (failure to cycle), prolonged anestrus (delayed cycling), split estrus (incomplete ovulation), silent estrus (ovulation without signs), shortened anestrus (shortened cycles), and prolonged estrus (extended cycles).
    • Veterinarians may utilize progesterone testing to help determine the timing of ovulation and confirm pregnancy.
    • Pyometra is a serious condition involving an infection of the uterus. It can lead to a buildup of pus in the uterus.
    • Depending on the severity of pyometra, treatment options include administering antibiotics or surgical removal of the uterus (ovarihysterectomy).
    • If pyometra is detected early and there are no complications, antibiotics can be successful.
    • If pyometra is severe or advances, surgery may be required.
    • Cesarean Delivery may be necessary if vaginal birth is impossible for the mother.

    Vaginal Disorders

    • Vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina. It can occur in juvenile dogs before their first estrus and may also be caused by bacterial or viral infections.
    • Vulvar stenosis refers to a narrowing of the vulva. It can hinder urination and contribute to urinary tract infections.

    Pre-Breeding Evaluation

    • A physical examination of both the male and female dog plays a critical role in ensuring successful breeding.
    • Both dogs should be free from parasites, have up-to-date vaccinations, and be on heartworm preventative medications.
    • A vaginal culture is recommended if there are signs of infection.
    • Testing for brucellosis is crucial, particularly for females before each breeding and for males every 6 months if they are frequently used for breeding.

    Reproductive Disorders

    • Prostatic Disorders
      • Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
        • Most common prostate disorder in dogs
        • Dihydrotestosterone is the main androgen that promotes hyperplasia
        • Castration is an effective treatment for BPH
        • Megestrol acetate or finasteride can be used in breeding dogs without affecting fertility
        • Estrogens should not be used to treat BPH
        • Delmadinone acetate, an androgen inhibitor, is sometimes used, but it is contraindicated in breeding dogs
      • Cystic Hyperplasia
        • Occurs when glandular excretory ducts become obstructed, resulting in multiple fluid-filled cysts
        • Usually associated with BPH and squamous metaplasia
      • Prostatic Neoplasia
        • Adenocarcinoma and transitional cell carcinoma are the most common types of prostatic cancer
        • Castration does not prevent the development of prostatic tumors
        • Metastasis to lymph nodes, bones, and organs is common
        • Intraoperative radiation therapy is the treatment of choice, but it is not recommended if metastases are present
        • Prostatectomy is associated with complications such as urinary incontinence and urethral stricture
        • Castration is of questionable benefit, and chemotherapy is not effective
    • Surgical Procedures:
      • Orchidectomy
        • Closed or open techniques can be used depending on the location of the testes
        • Double-ligate the spermatic cord with absorbable material
        • Transect and close the subcutaneous tissue and skin using absorbable sutures.
        • Complications include bruising, inflammation of the scrotum, hemorrhage, or infection
      • Cryptorchidism
        • An incision is made on the ventral midline from the umbilicus to the pubis, avoiding the prepuce
        • The intraabdominal testis is located, and its vessels and ductus deferens are double-ligated
        • The testis is transected and removed
        • The abdomen is closed routinely
      • Orchidectomy in Cats
        • Incise the scrotum and expose the testis
      • Postoperative Management
        • Consider postoperative analgesia
        • Minimize self-inflicted trauma
        • Complications include hemorrhage, infection, and dehiscence

    Disorders of the Penis and Prepuce

    • Clinical Signs
      • Preputial discharge
      • Hemorrhage
      • Abnormal urination
      • Pain
      • Swelling
      • Inflammation
      • Persistent erection
      • Failure to copulate
    • Physical Examination
      • Include a rectal examination
      • The prepuce should move freely, and the penis should be easily extruded
      • There should be no pain
      • A small amount of greenish discharge is normal in dogs but not in cats
      • The penis should be moist, light pink, with a palpable os penis in dogs
      • Fractures of the os penis may be palpable
      • In cats, sedation may be needed. The intact male cat should have small barbs on the penis
      • Investigate any swelling, and in cases of trauma, pass a urethral catheter to assess patency of the urethra
    • Foreign Body
      • Can include plant material and other small materials
      • May result in swelling, inflammation, and balanoposthitis
      • Objects may become lodged in the prepuce or may encircle the penis resulting in constriction
    • Neoplasias
      • Uncommon
      • Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT) is seen in young dogs as a red, irregular mass on the penis. It is sexually transmitted and can also affect females. TVT may undergo spontaneous remission, or it may require treatment with vincristine or radiation therapy
      • Preputial tumors are usually mast cell tumors or TVT
      • Urethral tumors can involve the penis. Osteosarcoma of the os penis has been reported
    • Balanoposthitis
      • Inflammation of the penis and prepuce
      • Usually caused by bacteria, which can be secondary to malformation, trauma, or foreign body
      • Ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice

    Disorders of the Vagina and Vulva

    • Clinical Signs
      • Purulent vaginal discharge
      • Abnormal urination
      • Pain while urinating or defecating
      • Swelling or redness around vulva
      • Pruritus
    • Physical Examination
      • Inspect for signs of inflammation, discharge, or masses
      • Palpate for pain, masses, or abnormal tissue thickening
      • Collect vaginal swabs for cytology and bacterial cultures
      • Consider ultrasound examination
    • Causes of Vaginitis
      • Infection (most common)
      • Trauma
      • Neoplasia
      • Hormonal imbalances
      • Foreign bodies
    • Treatment
      • Address underlying cause
      • Cleanse the vagina with a mild antiseptic solution
      • Administer antibiotics if bacterial infection is present
      • Surgical debridement or removal of foreign objects may be necessary

    Disorders of the Ovaries and Uterus

    • Ovaries
      • Located caudal to the kidneys
      • Attached to the abdominal wall by the mesovarium
      • The suspensory ligament extends between the last two ribs and the ovary
      • The proper ligament extends from the ovary to the uterine horn
      • The blood supply to the ovaries is through the ovarian arteriovenous complex on the medial side of the broad ligament
    • Uterus
      • Attached to the abdominal wall by the broad ligaments
      • The round ligament extends through the broad ligament and passes through the inguinal canal
      • The blood supply to the uterus is mainly from the uterine branch of the internal iliac artery
    • Ovariohysterectomy
      • The incision should be started at the umbilicus
      • Complications:
        • Hemorrhage
        • Infection of the abdominal cavity
        • Urinary or fecal incontinence
        • Anastomosis of the uterus
        • Postoperative ileus
    • Cesarean Section
      • Ventral midline incision
      • Incise cautiously to avoid lacerating the uterus
      • Exteriorize the uterus and incise in an avascular area
      • Move the fetus to the incision with gentle squeezing of the uterine horn
      • Remove fetus, remove the amniotic sac, and tie off the umbilical vessels
      • Close the uterus with absorbable suture in an inverting suture pattern
      • Lavage the uterus before returning to the abdominal cavity, and lavage the abdominal cavity if any contamination with uterine contents occurred
      • Complications:
        • Puppies may be depressed from the anesthetic agents used. They may need a respiratory stimulant such as doxapram. Estrogen levels increase, and vocalization occurs
      • Pyometra:
        • Occurs when the uterine lining becomes inflamed and filled with pus
        • Open pyometra: The cervix is open, and pus drains from the vagina
        • Closed pyometra: The cervix is closed, and pus accumulates in the uterus. This can be life-threatening
        • Clinical signs:
        • Lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, polyuria, and polydipsia
        • Abdominal distension, fever, and vaginal discharge
        • Treatment:
        • Ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice

    Reproduction in Dogs

    • Heat Cycle
      • The average heat cycle in dogs is about 6 months
      • The heat cycle can be divided into four stages:
        • Proestrus: The stage of sexual receptivity
        • Estrus: The stage of ovulation, when the female is fertile
        • Diestrus: The stage of pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy
        • Anestrus: The stage of sexual inactivity
    • Proestrus
      • Can last from 3 to 17 days
      • Clinical signs:
        • Blood-tinged vulvar discharge
        • Vulvar swelling
        • Increased interest in male dogs
        • The female may reject the male during this stage
    • Estrus
      • The female accepts breeding by the male.
      • The penis of the male stimulates the vagina, resulting in LH release
      • Multiple breedings are usually necessary to increase the chance of pregnancy
    • Interestrous:
      • If not bred, there is about a 5- to 14-day period before returning to proestrus
    • Diestrus:
      • Progesterone concentration is elevated and lasts for about 60 to 65 days if pregnant and 45 to 50 days if not pregnant

    Reproduction in Cats

    • Heat Cycle
      • The average heat cycle in cats is about 16 to 21 days
      • The heat cycle can be divided into four stages:
        • Proestrus: The stage of sexual receptivity
        • Estrus: The stage of ovulation, when the female is fertile
        • Diestrus: The stage of pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy
        • Anestrus: The stage of sexual inactivity
    • Proestrus
      • Can last from 1 to 9 days
      • Clinical signs:
        • Restlessness
        • Vocalization
        • Crouch and present hindquarters
        • May rub against objects or people
        • The female may reject the male during this stage
    • Estrus
      • Can last from 1 to 10 days
      • Clinical signs:
        • More pronounced vocalization
        • Rolling on the floor
        • Treading with hind legs
        • The female accepts breeding by the male.
      • The female may reject the male during this stage
    • Interestrous
      • If not bred, there is about a 5- to 14-day period before returning to proestrus
    • Diestrus
      • Progesterone concentration is elevated and lasts for about 60 to 65 days if pregnant and 45 to 50 days if not pregnant
    • Ovulation Induction
      • Ovulation can be induced by hormonal stimulation with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), vaginal stimulation, or breeding to a vasectomized male cat
    • Stimulation of Estrus
      • Can be accomplished by FSH administration or by maximizing the exposure to sunlight
    • Artificial Insemination
      • Semen is usually collected with an electroejaculator
      • The semen is then diluted and chilled or frozen
      • The semen is deposited into the vagina or uterus using a catheter

    Semen Evaluation

    • Semen can be evaluated for color, consistency, and cytology.
    • Presence of blood in semen may indicate a traumatic collection or prostatic disease.
    • A nonopaque second fraction indicates oligospermia.
    • Flecks of discolored debris are consistent with purulent material.
    • An air-dried slide of semen can be stained to identify inflammatory cells or organisms.

    Sperm Count

    • A hemocytometer is used to determine the number of sperm per milliliter of ejaculate.
    • Multiply the sperm count per milliliter by the volume of the ejaculate to determine the total sperm count.
    • A normal ejaculate contains more than 200 million sperm cells.

    Sperm Motility and Morphology

    • Evaluate a drop of ejaculate placed on a warm microscope slide.
    • 70% of sperm should be motile.
    • Morphologic abnormalities should not be present in greater than 20% of sperm.
    • Primary abnormalities include cytoplasmic droplets.

    Cryptorchidism

    • Bilateral cryptorchidism causes sterility.
    • Castration is the treatment of choice.

    Male Pseudohermaphroditism

    • Dogs have XY chromosomes, testes (usually cryptorchid), and external or internal female genitalia.

    Testicular Feminization Syndrome

    • Dogs have XY chromosomes but partial or complete failure of masculinization.
    • This is an X-linked inherited trait.
    • 50% of male offspring from a female carrier are affected, and 50% of female offspring are carriers.

    Acquired Disorders of the Testes

    • Infectious orchitis-epididymitis can arise from trauma, hematogenous spread, urinary tract, or prostate.
    • Aerobic bacteria are the most common cause of infectious orchitis.
    • Brucella canis is also an important cause.
    • Mycoplasma, Blastomyces, canine distemper virus, feline infectious peritonitis, and rickettsial infections can also cause infectious orchitis.
    • Castration and antibiotic therapy are curative for infectious orchitis.
    • Herpesvirus or fungal agents (Blastomyces) can also cause infectious orchitis.
    • Infectious orchitis is common in dogs but uncommon in cats.

    Disorders of the Penis

    • Penile Hypoplasia:

      • Can occur with failure of masculinization or XX sex reversal syndromes where ambiguous genitalia are noted.
      • If androgens are present during development, female pseudohermaphroditism may result.
      • Clitoral enlargement may mimic penile hypoplasia.
      • Urine may pool with penile hypoplasia and cause irritation of the prepuce.
      • Most common in Boston terriers.

    • Phimosis:

      • Occurs if the preputial opening is too small to allow extension of the penis.
      • Urine pools in the prepuce and causes irritation.

    • Paraphimosis:

      • Occurs when the penis is unable to retract into the prepuce.
      • Penile mucosa adheres to the prepuce, the prepuce rolls inward, and prevents the retraction of the penis.
      • This can lead to edema, ischemia, and necrosis of the penis.

    • Os penis deformity:

      • Can result in deviation of the penis and cause problems with copulation.

    Acquired Penile Disorders

    • Priapism:
      • Persistent, abnormal penile erection.
      • A medical emergency.
      • Stasis of the blood due to failure of venous outflow from the erect penis can lead to ischemia and necrosis.
      • Protect the penis against exposure and damage with frequent applications of sterile lubricant.

    Surgery of the Ovaries and Uterus

    • Anatomy:

      • The ovaries are located caudal to the kidneys and are attached to the abdominal wall by the mesovarium.
      • The suspensory ligament extends between the last two ribs and the ovary.
      • The proper ligament extends from the ovary to the uterine horn.
      • The blood supply to the ovaries is through the ovarian arterio-venous complex on the medial side of the broad ligament.
      • The uterus is attached to the abdominal wall by the broad ligaments.
      • The round ligament extends through the broad ligament and passes through the inguinal canal.
      • The blood supply to the uterus is mainly from the uterine branch of the internal iliac artery.

    • Ovariohysterectomy:

      • Incision should be started at the umbilicus.

    • Episioplasty:

      • Excise excessive perivulvar skin folds; treatment of choice if secondary infections occur.

    • Vaginal Stenosis:

      • Common in young bitches having their first estrous cycle.
      • If this occurs in older bitches, an estrogen-secreting ovarian cyst is a possibility.
      • Vaginal cytology suggests estrogen as the cause of the bleeding (primarily superficial cells).

    Conception Failure

    • Poor semen quality.
    • Ovulation failure.
    • Improper timing of breeding.
    • Improper breeding methods.

    Pregnancy Diagnosis

    • Ultrasound is useful after day 19 post-ovulation.
    • Palpation is accurate within a narrow window between day 23 and 30 post-ovulation.
    • Serum relaxin concentration can be measured to predict pregnancy after day 26 postovulation.
    • Radiography can be used after day 47 post-ovulation to determine the number and size of pups.

    Estrus Induction

    • A minimum of 4 months of anestrus is required for estrus induction.
    • Both cabergoline and deslorelin can be used to induce estrus.

    Artificial Insemination

    • Determine the time of ovulation.
    • Ensure that sperm are viable and normal in appearance.
    • With the female standing, deposit semen at the external opening of the cervix via an insemination pipette.

    Cesarean Section

    • A ventral midline incision is made. Incise cautiously to avoid lacerating the large uterus.
    • Exteriorize the uterus and incise in an avascular area.
    • Move the fetus to the incision with gentle squeezing of the uterine horn.
    • Remove the fetus, remove the amniotic sac, and tie off the umbilical vessels.
    • Close the uterus with absorbable suture material in an inverting suture pattern.
    • Lavage the uterus before returning to the abdominal cavity, and lavage the abdominal cavity if any contamination with uterine contents occurred.
    • Complications:
      • Puppies may be depressed from the anesthetic agents used. They may need a respiratory stimulant such as doxapram.
      • Topical or systemic antibiotics are used to treat secondary infection.

    Disorders of the Ovaries and Uterus

    • Ovarian Remnant Syndrome: Occurs when not all ovarian tissue is removed during ovariohysterectomy.

      • Signs of estrus can recur between 1 and 3 years after the surgery.
      • High progesterone or low LH levels in a spayed female suggest an ovarian remnant.
      • Treatment involves removing the remaining ovarian tissue.

    • Ovarian Neoplasia: Can occur in both dogs and cats.

      • Dogs: Common tumors include granulosa cell tumors (associated with hyperestrogenism, causing persistent estrus and gynecomastia), adenoma, adenocarcinoma, and germ cell tumors.
      • Cats: Common tumors include granulosa cell tumors and teratomas.
      • Clinical signs may be absent.
      • Abdominal radiography and ultrasound can aid in diagnosis
      • Treatment involves ovariohysterectomy.

    Diseases of the Uterus

    • Pyometra: Occurs when the uterus fills with pus.

      • Common in dogs, especially after a heat cycle.
      • Two types: Open pyometra (pus drains through the cervix) and closed pyometra (pus is trapped in the uterus).
      • Symptoms include lethargy, loss of appetite, abdominal distension, and vaginal discharge.
      • Treatment typically involves ovariohysterectomy.

    • Diseases During Pregnancy: Can lead to abortion.

      • Dogs: Infections caused by Brucella canis and herpesvirus are common.
      • Cats: Infections caused by feline panleukopenia virus and herpesvirus are common.
      • Most affected animals show no clinical signs other than abortion.

    • Normal Parturition: The process of giving birth.

      • Refusal of food and nesting behavior precedes labor.
      • Active contractions begin about 6 to 12 hours later.
      • The first puppy or kitten is delivered about 2 to 4 hours after contractions start.
      • Puppies or kittens can be born feet first.
      • Delivery can be rapid or occur over several hours.
      • A dark green discharge is common during and after labor.

    • Dystocia: Difficult or obstructed labor.

      • Common in dogs, especially toy breeds and brachycephalic breeds due to their large heads and small pelvic canals.
      • In cats, the Devon rex is predisposed.
      • Uterine inertia can also be a factor.
      • Abdominal ultrasound or radiographs can detect retained fetuses.
      • Treatment involves ovariohysterectomy and antibiotic therapy.

    • Uterine Prolapse: Rare but can occur after parturition.

      • The uterus protrudes from the vagina.
      • Treatment involves manually reducing the prolapsed tissue or removing it if ulcerated or necrotic.

    • Subinvolution of Placental Sites: Incomplete involution of the uterine lining after parturition.

      • Usually complete within 6 weeks in dogs but can last up to 3 months.
      • A mucoid, brownish, or hemorrhagic vaginal discharge is normal.
      • Persistent bleeding for longer than 6 weeks is a sign of subinvolution.
      • Usually resolves without treatment.

    • Uterine Neoplasia: Tumors are uncommon in dogs and cats.

      • Dogs: Leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma are the most common tumors.
      • Cats: Endometrial adenocarcinoma is the most common tumor.
      • Tumors may be found incidentally or cause vaginal discharge or bleeding.
      • Ovariohysterectomy is the treatment of choice.

    Surgery of the Ovaries and Uterus

    • Anatomy : The ovaries are located caudal to the kidneys and attached to the abdominal wall by the mesovarium.
      • The suspensory ligament extends between the last two ribs and the ovary.
      • The proper ligament extends from the ovary to the uterine horn.
      • The ovaries are supplied by the ovarian arteriovenous complex.
    • Ovariohysterectomy: Removal of the ovaries and uterus.
      • Incision typically starts at the umbilicus.
      • Cautious incision is needed to avoid lacerating the uterus during surgery.
      • The uterus is exteriorized, and an incision is made in an avascular area.
      • Fetuses are removed by gently squeezing the uterine horn.
      • Umbilical vessels are tied off after fetal removal.
      • The uterus is closed with absorbable suture material.
      • The uterus and abdominal cavity are lavaged to remove any contaminants.

    Neoplasia

    • Leiomyoma: Most common uterine neoplasm. Lipomas can also occur.
    • Leiomyosarcoma: Most common malignant uterine neoplasm. Other types include squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, mast cell tumors, hemangiosarcoma, and hemangiopericytoma.
    • Transmissible Venereal Tumor (TVT): Proliferative tumor transmitted by sexual contact.
      • More common in younger, sexually active dogs.
      • Can be solitary or multiple, friable, or cauliflower-like lesions.
      • Found on oral and nasal mucosa, skin, and perineum.
    • Treatment: Complete resection is the treatment of choice. Chemotherapy with vincristine is used for multiple TVT.

    Vaginitis

    • Causes:
      • Infections: Bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections.
      • Hormonal Imbalances: Hormonal fluctuations can increase susceptibility to infection.
      • Immune Deficiency: Weakened immune systems can make animals more vulnerable to infection.
      • Trauma: Vaginal trauma can increase risk of infection.
    • Symptoms: Vaginal discharge, vulvar swelling, licking, and discomfort.
    • Treatment: Treatment depends on the cause. May include antibiotics, antifungals, antiparasitics, or other medications.

    Estrus Cycle

    • The Canine Estrus Cycle: Seasonal or non-seasonal in dogs.
      • Divided into four phases:
        • Anestrus: Not cycling, lasts several months.
        • Proestrus: The beginning of the estrous cycle (about 9 days), characterized by swollen vulva and bloody discharge.
        • Estrus: "Heat" phase, ovulation occurs (about 5-9 days), characterized by reduced bloody discharge and receptivity to mating.
        • Diestrus: Post ovulation (around 2-4 months if non-pregnant, 8 weeks if pregnant), characterized by progesterone production, vaginal discharge, and reduced sexual receptivity.

    Artificial Insemination

    • Indications: Used in breeding situations where natural mating isn't feasible or desired.
      • May be used to improve breed characteristics or to avoid spread of diseases.
      • Can be performed transcervically or surgically directly into the uterus using a sterile insemination rod.

    Termination of Pregnancy

    • Methods: Drugs such as prostaglandin F2α or cabergoline (antiprolactin drug) can lyse the corpus luteum during the second half of pregnancy.
      • Confirms all fetuses have been passed after treatment.

    Feline Estrus Cycle

    • Normal Estrus Cycle: Cats are seasonally polyestrus.
      • Anestrus: Long periods without cycling, especially when daylight is minimal.
      • Proestrus: Short period (1-2 days) with changes in behavior and swelling of vulva.
      • Estrus: "Heat" phase, lasts 7 days with aggressive behavior, vocalization, rolling, and receptivity to mating.
      • Diestrus: Develops only if pregnancy occurs, lasts about 63 days.
    • Abnormal Estrus Cycle:
      • Persistent anestrus: May occur in older cats.
      • Prolonged anestrus: May be due to thyroid function, cortisol production, or other hormone imbalances.
      • Pseudopregnancy: Can occur in unmated cats, mimicking pregnancy with mammary gland enlargement, nesting, and behavioral changes.

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