Long Term Memory: Posner and Sternberg Tasks

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Questions and Answers

Which disorder is characterized by the death of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra?

  • Alzheimer's Disease
  • Pick's Disease
  • Parkinson's Disease (correct)
  • Huntington's Disease

What is the first symptom that typically presents in Alzheimer's Disease?

  • Motor control issues
  • Aggressive behavior
  • Personality disorders
  • Memory loss (correct)

What is the primary goal of the Posner task?

  • Measure response times for letter recognition.
  • Assess if two letters belong to the same category. (correct)
  • Determine if two letters are the same in capitalization.
  • Evaluate memory recall from a set of letters.

What significant change occurred in Phineas Gage's personality after the accident?

<p>He became impatient and irreverent. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Sternberg task, what are the hypothesized stages involved in processing?

<p>Encode, compare, decide, and respond. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which two structures are affected in Huntington's disease due to reduced levels of a specific neurotransmitter?

<p>Caudate and Putamen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the word superiority effect indicate about letter recognition?

<p>Letters are identified faster when embedded in words than in random strings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tumor is named after the type of cell it originates from, such as astrocytoma?

<p>Astrocytoma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Stroop effect demonstrate about cognitive processing?

<p>Multiple representations may conflict during response generation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key principle of the lesion method in cognitive neuroscience?

<p>It infers brain function from deficits observed after damage. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the intracellular single unit recording method?

<p>It penetrates the cell to gather precise electrical signals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does memory set size have on response times in the Sternberg task?

<p>Response times increase with increasing memory set size. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Posner task approach letter categorization?

<p>By varying both capitalization and type of letters. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Electroencephalography (EEG) primarily measure?

<p>Summed results of brain activity across the scalp (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a PET scan?

<p>To evaluate diseases of the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle behind functional MRI (fMRI)?

<p>It detects changes in blood oxygen levels related to neural activity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of resolution does EEG have?

<p>High temporal resolution and low spatial resolution (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are structural and functional MRI different?

<p>Functional MRI produces maps of blood oxygen levels, while structural MRI produces anatomical images (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is neurogenesis primarily defined as?

<p>The creation of neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the neural plate develops into the nervous system?

<p>Ectoderm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from the radial migration of neural precursor cells?

<p>Topographic relation of cells in the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What disruption is observed in Reeler mice as a consequence of genetic manipulation?

<p>Laminar organization reversal (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is integral to Rakic's 'protomap' hypothesis?

<p>Neuronal organization is predetermined by genetic factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what approximate age do the prefrontal regions of the brain fully develop?

<p>25 years (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one method used to track developmental timecourse in embryos?

<p>3H-thymidine labeling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following defines the role of radial glial cells during neural development?

<p>To guide the migration of other neural cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental stage in Jean Piaget's theory is characterized by abstract thinking and logical reasoning?

<p>Formal operations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure is primarily formed from the ectoderm during development?

<p>Nervous system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the process of assimilation in cognitive development?

<p>Interpreting events using existing cognitive structures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what stage do children begin to develop object permanence according to Piaget?

<p>Sensorimotor stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation in Piaget's theory according to Neo-Piagetians?

<p>There is inadequate focus on social and cultural influences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What discovery did Rene Baillergeon make regarding object permanence?

<p>It may emerge earlier than Piaget suggested (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which developmental stage do children primarily engage in imaginative play?

<p>Pre-operational stage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive ability typically develops during the concrete operations stage?

<p>Ability to classify and categorize (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main contribution of Judy DeLoache’s research in cognitive development?

<p>Exploration of the use of symbols by young children (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the formal operations stage in Piaget’s framework?

<p>Capable of abstract reasoning and problem-solving (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Study Notes

Long Term Memory

  • Long term memory is involved in the Posner and Sternberg tasks
  • The Posner test is designed to show that multiple representations are activated by a single stimulus
  • The Sternberg test is meant to show that memory retrieval is a serial comparison process

Posner Task

  • Participants are presented with letter pairs
  • They are instructed to determine if the letters are the same – determined by size and vowel/consonant or capital/lowercase
  • Results show multiple representations of a single stimulus are activated

Sternberg Task

  • Participants memorize a set of letters
  • Then they are presented with a new letter and determine if it is part of the set
  • Response time increases with the size of the set - indicating the process is serial - each response takes a fixed amount of time

Word Superiority Effect

  • The word superiority effect is shown in the Sternberg task
  • This effect occurs when target letters are faster to identify when they are within a word, rather than a random string of characters

Stroop Task

  • Participants name the color of ink that a word or string of letters are presented with
  • The Stroop Effect occurs when the word presented is a color name, but in a different colored ink
  • For example, the word "RED" printed in blue ink - this increases the time it takes to name the color
  • This is thought to be because of competing representations - the color in reality and the color the word represents

The Lesion Method

  • This was the foundation for cognitive neuroscience
  • Missing brain regions can be inferred from the patient’s inability to perform certain tasks

Single Unit Recording

  • This method involves attaching electrodes to the skull
  • A micropipette penetrates single cells
  • This requires fine control within 1 micron
  • Three basic types:
    • Extracellular: the strongest signal is from the closest cell, filters are used to minimize weaker signals, repetition is required to determine if the signal is typical
    • Intracellular: a pipette penetrates the cell
    • Microiontophoresis: combines recording with the deposition of chemicals onto a neuron - this is difficult because it’s hard to know what to manipulate

Electroencephalography (EEG)

  • EEG does not measure individual neuron activity, it measures the summed activity across the scalp
  • High temporal resolution, low spatial resolution
  • Trial averaging is needed for reliable data
  • Signal varies with states of consciousness

Position Emission Tomography (PET)

  • Useful for evaluating brain diseases - it can capture a variety of processes
  • It can acquire the activity of neurotransmitters
  • Different tracers emit different gamma rays, which are detected by the machine
  • Positrons emit two gamma rays that have equal energy but move in opposite directions
  • The PET scanner detects the gamma rays and produces an image

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

  • Radiofrequency pulses make hydrogen protons spin and release energy
  • The energy is different for different types of tissue
  • Structural MRI shows anatomical images
  • Functional MRI shows maps of blood oxygen level changes, this is how we infer neural activity
  • This method allows the visualization of "active" brain regions during cognitive performance
  • Active neurons require more oxygen, which is provided by an increase in blood flow
  • fMRI detects the changes in oxygen levels across the brain

Naturally Occurring Lesions

  • Tumors:
    • An abnormal mass of growing tissue
    • Named after the region they grow in
  • Degenerative Disorders
  • Infections
  • Head Trauma
    • Contra coup: closed head injuries result in frontal and parietal damage
  • Epilepsy

Degenerative Disorders

  • Parkinson’s disease:
    • Death of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra
    • Results in motor control issues
  • Huntington’s disease:
    • Degeneration of the caudate and putamen due to a reduction in GABA
  • Alzheimer’s disease:
    • Progressive deterioration from the posterior to the anterior cortex
    • Memory loss is the first symptom
  • Pick’s Disease:
    • Rarer than Alzheimer’s disease, progresses in the opposite direction (anterior to posterior)
    • Characterized by cortical “pick’s bodies”
    • Personality disorders are the first symptom to present

Phineas Gage

  • A tamping iron severely damaged his left frontal lobe
  • This shows the importance of the prefrontal cortex in personality, executive function, and impulse control
  • He went from a diligent and polite individual to irreverent, impatient, aggressive, profane, etc.

Development of the Nervous System

  • Gross development:
    • Multicellular blastula: the first structure after the egg is penetrated by the sperm
    • Contains precursor cells (undifferentiated cells) that become neurons, glial cells, and ependymal cells
    • Precursor cells divide in 3 ways: dividing into brain cells, into brain cells and precursor cells, into only precursor cells

Development of the Nervous System

  • Developmental Sequence of Multicellular Blastula:
    • Gastrulation: invagination and cell migration within the blastula to form the ectoderm
    • Neurulation: ectodermal cells form the neural plate, which then invaginates and folds to form the neural groove
  • The 3 layers of the neural plate:
    • Ectoderm: forms the nervous system and outer skin
    • Endoderm: forms the gut and digestive organs
    • Mesoderm: forms the skeletal system and voluntary muscles

Development of the Nervous System

  • Neurogenesis:
    • This is the creation of neurons
    • This continues after embryonic development
  • The brain is changing across the lifespan - there is the formation and pruning of synapses and myelination
  • The prefrontal cortex is not fully developed until adulthood - around age 25

Human Embryo

  • The primitive brain consists of 3 cavities that form the ventricles
  • Ependymal cells stay behind to form the ventricular walls
  • Gross brain structures are formed by bends called flexures
  • The cortex forms from the inside out
  • The 3H-thymidine labeling technique is radioactive and injected into the embryo and labels the cells that are dividing

Rakic’s Evidence for Hypotheses

  • The type of neuron a cell becomes is determined by its point of genesis
  • Evidence:
    • Correlational- determination of cell type is correlated with the time of creation during gestation
    • Experimental- cells transplanted from one animal to another migrate to the location based off their creation time
      • Transplantation does not affect connectivity

Consequences of Radial Migration

  • Cells migrate along radial glia
  • Cells born next to each other stay together in the adult brain
  • Cells born far apart stay far apart in the adult brain
  • This creates a topographic relation of cells in the ventricular zone
  • This leads to the columnar/laminar organization of the cortex
    • Cortical column is a key unit of cortical organization
  • Radial cells become astrocytes after migration is complete
  • Radial unit hypothesis

Reeler Mice Experiment

  • Genetically manipulated radial glia
  • Disrupted neuronal organization
  • Laminar organization is reversed
  • This leads to:
    • Reduced cerebellar volume
    • Ataxic gait
    • Dystonia
    • Tremors

Rakic’s “protomap” hypothesis

  • Genetic predisposition for organization
  • Brain organization is determined in the ventricular zone
  • Neurons in the ventricular zone attract function-specific afferent fibers according to the protomap (a type of “blueprint”)

Rakic’s Hypothesis: radiations and protomaps

  • The final role of cells is determined by a complex mix of genetic and environmental factors
  • This interplay is studied with microsurgical experimental techniques

Jean Piaget

  • Knowledge develops in 4 stages:
    • Sensorimotor
    • Pre-operational
    • Concrete operations
    • Formal operations
  • Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental actions that support intellect
  • 3 processes that develop these structures:
    • Adaptation: infants try to adapt to the world
    • Assimilation: interpreting events through existing cognitive structures
    • Accommodation: changing cognitive structures to make sense of the world

Piaget’s Theory of Developmental Stages

  • Sensorimotor stage:
    • Ages birth to 2 years
    • unconnected intelligence, sensation, and thought
    • poor concepts of objects and no object permanence
  • Pre-operational stage:
    • Ages 2 to 7 years
    • Conservation of quantity, imagination, and imitation develop
  • Concrete Operations stage:
    • Ages 7 to 11 years
    • Logical problem-solving, classification, and categorization abilities develop
    • Concrete concepts and reversibility develops
  • Formal Operations stage:
    • Ages 12 and on
    • Abstract thought, problem-solving, scientific thought
    • Social issues and identity are of concern

Neo-Piagetians

  • Challenged the rigidity of Piaget’s theory
  • They believed cognitive abilities developed earlier than Piaget believed
  • Neo-Piagetians discussed in class:

Rene Baillergeon

  • Studied object permanence
  • Methodology:
    • An object is presented, then hidden behind a screen that is dropped
    • Sometimes the object is there, sometimes it is not
  • Findings:
    • Infants 3.5 months old show surprise if the object appears to disappear
    • Object permanence may occur earlier than Piaget said

Judy DeLoache

  • Studied symbol use
  • Methodology:
    • A child sees a prize in a model of a room
    • The child then searches the actual room for the prize
  • Findings:
    • 2.5-year-olds have trouble and search randomly
    • 3-year-olds have a much higher rate of success

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