Final Revision - Key Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What primarily differentiates an accent from a regional dialect?

Accents are linked to a specific geographical area.

Accents involve changes in vocabulary.

Accents focus solely on pronunciation differences. (correct)

Accents include grammatical changes.

Which of the following examples best illustrates a regional dialect?

A speaker using 'y'all' for the second person plural. (correct)

A Scottish individual using a unique pronunciation for 'car.'

A person from London speaking with a distinct accent.

A socialite speaking with Received Pronunciation.

What is the function of an isogloss?

To define social class accents.

To separate linguistic features on a map. (correct)

To denote regional accents.

To show the history of a language.

Which of the following is an example of an accent?

Pronouncing 'car' with a rolled 'r' sound. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding Received Pronunciation (RP)?

RP conceals regional origins. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these characteristics is NOT consistent with a regional dialect?

Strict adherence to a standardized language. Signup and view all the answers

What does a linguistic feature separated by an isogloss indicate?

The geographical distribution of language characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following terms describes a distinct form of a language that includes variations in vocabulary and grammar?

Regional Dialect Signup and view all the answers

What does positive politeness primarily aim to achieve?

Minimize social distance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples demonstrates negative politeness?

"I'm sorry to bother you, but could you possibly help me?" Signup and view all the answers

What does impoliteness typically involve?

Disregard for social norms Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates cross-cultural communication?

Understanding a handshake as a greeting in Western cultures Signup and view all the answers

How does negative politeness differ from positive politeness?

It is indirect and formal Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of impolite behavior?

Saying "That's a stupid idea!" Signup and view all the answers

Why is understanding cultural differences important in communication?

It enhances mutual respect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the effect of impoliteness on social interactions?

It damages social harmony Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a dialect chain?

Adjacent dialects are similar, but distant dialects may not be. Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of a social dialect?

Differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar linked to social identity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction of a vernacular dialect?

It is acquired informally, often used among family and friends. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes sharp stratification?

Clear, marked differences in language features between distinct social groups. Signup and view all the answers

Gender-exclusive features in language are characterized by what?

Language forms that are exclusively used by one gender. Signup and view all the answers

In sociolinguistic patterns, what does it indicate when younger speakers adopt the uvular 'r' pronunciation?

A linguistic change correlated with age. Signup and view all the answers

What is the contrast between sharp and fine stratification?

Sharp stratification shows clearly defined social boundaries, while fine stratification demonstrates subtle variations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples illustrates a social dialect?

The unique pronunciation and vocabulary among working-class Londoners. Signup and view all the answers

Gender-preferential features refer to what pattern in language use?

Variations that occur more frequently in one gender's speech. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of vernacular language usage?

Communicating using dialects within informal family settings. Signup and view all the answers

How are sociolinguistic patterns typically structured?

They are shaped by social identities and hierarchies. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is NOT associated with social dialects?

Absence of dialectal differences in language communities. Signup and view all the answers

What linguistic feature is commonly associated with the Cockney dialect?

Rhyming slang and dropping initial consonants. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'prepone' illustrate in the context of Indian English?

A unique linguistic feature of Indian English Signup and view all the answers

How can social networks influence language use in a professional setting?

By encouraging the adoption of speech patterns specific to the group Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes network density within a social network?

The extent of member interactions with one another Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a uniplex network?

Interacting with others only through a single context Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of a community of practice?

Members share a common goal and develop practices together Signup and view all the answers

Which factor most influences the construction of social identity through language?

Affiliations with particular social groups Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between 'change from above' and 'change from below' in language?

'Change from above' is recognized as prestigious, while 'change from below' occurs without conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

How does speaker innovation contribute to language change?

It involves the introduction of new forms that may spread within the community Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a high network density have on language patterns?

It reinforces shared linguistic features among residents Signup and view all the answers

What defines a multiplex network?

Individuals interact across multiple contexts and roles Signup and view all the answers

Which term explains how linguistic changes reflect the influence of higher social classes?

Change from above Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes local fishermen altering their pronunciation of vowels?

Change from below Signup and view all the answers

Why might a teenager use contemporary slang and abbreviations?

To align with their group's identity and social status Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible outcome of a community of practice engaging regularly in shared activities?

Developing specialized vocabulary understood only within that group Signup and view all the answers

How do women's speech patterns compare to men's within the same social class?

Women generally use more standard language forms than men. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant pattern observed in age grading within a stable linguistic community?

Certain linguistic features are associated with specific life stages. Signup and view all the answers

How does ethnicity influence language use according to sociolinguistics?

Individuals may employ linguistic features to express their ethnic identity. Signup and view all the answers

What feature is characteristic of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)?

Application of invariant 'be' for habitual actions. Signup and view all the answers

British Black English includes influences from which linguistic source?

Caribbean Creoles, particularly Jamaican Patois. Signup and view all the answers

Which vocabulary usage is characteristic of Maori English?

Incorporation of Maori vocabulary and phrases. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'New Englishes' refer to?

Varieties of English that emerged in non-native regions. Signup and view all the answers

Which explanation accounts for women using more standard language forms than men?

Women's greater social status consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

During which life stage do individuals typically use more vernacular forms and slang?

Adolescence. Signup and view all the answers

What do Maori speakers often incorporate into their English speech as a means of expressing identity?

Traditional Maori words and phrases. Signup and view all the answers

What linguistic feature might reflect social status among women within different classes?

The variation in standard language use. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to language use among individuals after retirement?

They may revert to using more vernacular forms. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the relationship between social class and language use in Norwich, England?

Working-class men significantly use more vernacular forms than women. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of koineisation?

The emergence of a new language variety Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates wave theory?

The spread of the glottal stop in British English Signup and view all the answers

How does lexical diffusion differ from other linguistic change processes?

It spreads sound changes word-by-word Signup and view all the answers

What is the key assumption in apparent-time studies?

Younger speakers reflect changes in progress Signup and view all the answers

What does a real-time study focus on?

Language changes documented over time Signup and view all the answers

What does style in language refer to?

The variation in language use according to context Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of audience design primarily about?

Modifying speech according to social background Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies speech accommodation?

A salesperson mirroring a customer's accent Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of speech convergence?

To foster social connection and solidarity Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes speech divergence?

It emphasizes differences from an interlocutor Signup and view all the answers

What is a major feature of the koine developed in Milton Keynes?

The blend of regional dialects into a stable form Signup and view all the answers

What linguistic change does the Great Vowel Shift exemplify?

Lexical diffusion in pronunciation Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding speech styles is true?

Speakers can switch styles based on their audience Signup and view all the answers

What does the use of 'innit' as a tag question signify in the context of koineisation?

A marker of local pride and identity Signup and view all the answers

What does referee design primarily focus on in speech adjustment?

Mimicking speech associated with a third party or reference group Signup and view all the answers

How does stylisation differ from a speaker's regular speech?

It involves deliberate use of non-regular speech styles for effect. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of Labovian methodology in sociolinguistics?

Studying language variation through systematic data collection Signup and view all the answers

What challenge is presented by the observer's paradox in linguistic research?

The alteration of speech due to the presence of an observer. Signup and view all the answers

What defines hypercorrection in language use?

The over-application of language rules to achieve prestige. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major characteristic of a register in language?

It is associated with specific social settings or professions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes speech functions?

The various purposes that utterances serve in communication. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the phatic function is accurate?

It serves to establish or maintain social relationships. Signup and view all the answers

What is the directive function used for in speech?

To influence the behavior or actions of others. Signup and view all the answers

What role do address forms play in conversation?

They reflect the social relationship between interlocutors. Signup and view all the answers

Which example demonstrates hypercorrection?

An individual carefully pronouncing the post-vocalic 'r' excessively. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of sociolinguistic research is emphasized by Labovian methodology?

The elicitation of both formal and casual speech patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of the observer's paradox in research settings?

Gathering unfiltered, natural language data. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Accent

Variations in pronunciation tied to a region, social class, or ethnicity.
Solely focuses on pronunciation, not grammar or vocabulary.
Example: Scottish accent features rolling "r" sounds and distinct vowel pronunciations (e.g., "about" pronounced as [əˈbʌut]).

Regional Dialect

A distinct language form found in a specific geographical area.
Involves differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
Example: Appalachian English includes unique features like "you-all" for second-person plural and vocabulary like "poke" for "bag."

Isogloss

A boundary line on a map that separates regions with different linguistic features.
Indicates the geographical distribution of language traits like pronunciation, word usage, or grammar.
Example: The "Benrath Line" in Germany divides High German from Low German dialects (e.g., "make" is "maken" north of the line and "machen" south).

Dialect Chain

A series of dialects across a geographical area, each slightly different from the next.
Adjacent dialects are mutually intelligible, but those at opposite ends may not understand each other.
Example: Italian dialects change gradually from north to south, with neighboring communities understanding each other, but Milanese and Neapolitan are not mutually comprehensible.

A variety of a language associated with a specific social group (e.g., socioeconomic status, education, occupation, ethnicity).
Features differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar reflecting social identities.
Example: Cockney dialect in London features "h" dropping ("ouse for "house") and rhyming slang associated with the working class.

Vernacular

The everyday language spoken by ordinary people in a community or region.
Often acquired informally at home and used among close family and friends.
Example: Jamaican Patois, used informally among community members, includes phrases like "Mi a go a di shop" ("I am going to the shop").

Sociolinguistic Patterns

Systematic language variations correlated with social factors like social class, gender, age, ethnicity, and social networks.
Show how language reflects and constructs social identities and hierarchies.
Example: Younger speakers in Montreal increasingly adopt the uvular "r" pronunciation, contrasting with older speakers' use of the alveolar "r."

Sharp and Fine Stratification

Sharp Stratification: Dramatic differences in a linguistic feature between social groups, indicating strong social boundaries.
Fine Stratification: Subtle, gradual differences in language use across social groups, showing a continuum of usage.
Example: Sharp stratification: Using multiple negation may be absent in middle-class speech but prevalent in working-class speech. Fine stratification: Frequency of the prestigious "ne" in French negation shows a gradual decrease from the upper to lower classes.

Gender-exclusive Features

Linguistic forms used only by one gender within a speech community.
Common in societies with clearly demarcated gender roles.
Example: In the Yana language, men add the suffix "-na" to certain nouns that women do not (e.g., women say "ba" for "deer," men say "ba-na").

Gender-preferential Features

Linguistic forms used by both genders but are preferred or used more frequently by one gender.
Example: Women tend to use more standard language forms (e.g., "-ing" pronunciation) in English, while men may prefer vernacular "-in'" pronunciation.

Examines how men's and women's speech patterns vary within different social classes.
Women often use more standard language forms across classes, but the extent varies depending on the class.
Example: Studies in Norwich, England, showed working-class men used more vernacular forms, while working-class women used fewer; middle-class women and men showed less divergence.

Age Grading

Pattern of language variation and change occurring as individuals age, reflecting socially appropriate speech for different age groups.
Example: Adolescents may use more slang and vernacular features to assert identity with peers; adults shift towards more standard forms in the workplace; and later in life, individuals may revert to vernacular use.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural heritage or identity of a group, often characterized by common language, ancestry, traditions, and customs.
Influences language use as individuals may employ certain linguistic features to express their ethnic identity.
Example: Maori people in New Zealand incorporate Maori words into their English speech (e.g., using "Kia ora" for "hello").

African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

Distinctive dialect of English spoken primarily by African Americans.
Features unique grammar, phonology, and lexicon that differentiate it from Standard American English.
Example: AAVE uses invariant "be" to indicate habitual actions (e.g., "She be working late on Fridays").

British Black English

Varieties of English spoken by Black communities in the UK, especially those of Caribbean descent.
Often incorporates features from Caribbean Creoles like Jamaican Patois.
Example: British Black English uses Creole-influenced grammar like "Mi a go shop" ("I am going to the shop").

Maori English

Variety of English spoken by Maori people in New Zealand.
Features Maori vocabulary, discourse particles, and phonological and grammatical features.
Example: Maori English speakers might use the tag question "eh" at the end of sentences (e.g., "It's a nice day today, eh?")

New Englishes

Varieties of English developed in regions where English is not native, influenced by local languages and cultures.
Example: Indian English uses the word "prepone" to mean the opposite of "postpone," reflecting the influence of local linguistic needs and creativity on English.

Web of social relationships and interactions individuals have with others.
Influences language use as people adopt speech patterns prevalent within their network.
Example: Working in a close-knit team with colleagues who frequently use industry jargon may lead to the adoption of similar language patterns.

Network Density

The extent to which members of a social network know and interact with each other.
Dense networks reinforce shared linguistic features.
Example: In a small rural community with high network density, most residents interact with each other, reinforcing the use of the regional dialect.

Uniplex and Multiplex Networks

Uniplex Network: Individuals are connected through a single type of relationship (e.g., yoga class).
Multiplex Network: Individuals interact in multiple social contexts (e.g., coworkers, friends, neighbors).

Community of Practice

A group of people regularly engaging in shared activities, developing common practices, language, and norms.
Members learn from each other and collectively contribute to the group's practices and identity.
Example: Amateur astronomers who meet to observe the night sky develop a specialized vocabulary.

Ways in which individuals use language and social practices to create and express their identities.
Language choices reflect affiliations with certain groups, social statuses, or personal identities.
Example: Teenagers may adopt slang and catchphrases popular among their peers to fit in and construct an identity aligned with youth culture.

Speaker Innovation

Introduction of new linguistic forms or usages by individual speakers.
Can arise spontaneously or through imitation.
Example: A teenager introduces a new word like "selfie" which, if picked up by others, contributes to language change.

Change from Above

Linguistic change entering a speech community from higher social classes or external prestige varieties.
Often consciously adopted and spread from higher to lower strata.
Example: Adoption of the post-vocalic 'r' pronunciation in New York City was a conscious effort to sound more upscale, aligning with higher social class speech patterns.

Change from Below

Linguistic changes originating within a speech community, often among lower social classes, without conscious awareness.
Typically involves vernacular forms and gradually spreads.
Example: A new vernacular feature emerges and spreads organically within a community, not due to conscious effort.

Koines and Koineisation

A koine is a new and stable language variety that emerges from the mixing of different dialects of the same language.
The mixing of dialects typically occurs through contact among speakers.
Koineisation is the process by which this new variety develops.
Koineisation involves the leveling of marked features from the contributing dialects and the adoption of common forms.
An example of koineisation is the development of a new variety in Milton Keynes, England, which included features like the use of "innit" as a tag question, borrowed from Cockney English.

Wave Theory

Wave theory describes the spread of linguistic changes through a language or speech community.
It likens the spread of change to waves rippling outward from a central point.
A change begins in one location or among one group of speakers.
The change gradually spreads to neighboring areas or social groups.
An example of wave theory is the spread of the glottal stop [ʔ] for the /t/ sound in British English.
The glottal stop originated in London and spread to adjacent regions and social groups.

Lexical Diffusion

Lexical diffusion refers to the gradual spread of a sound change through the vocabulary of a language.
The process of lexical diffusion affects certain words first and then extends to others over time, rather than affecting all words simultaneously.
An example of lexical diffusion is the Great Vowel Shift in the history of English.
The Great Vowel Shift did not affect all words at once.
The pronunciation of "meet" and "meat" converged over time.

Apparent-Time Change

Apparent-time studies examine language variation by comparing the speech of individuals of different ages at a single point in time.
The assumption underlying apparent-time studies is that differences between age groups reflect language change in progress.
Younger speakers tend to use newer forms.
An example of an apparent-time change is the use of "be like" as a quotative.
Teenagers tend to use "be like" more frequently than older adults, suggesting an apparent-time change.

Real-Time Change

Real-time studies involve observing and documenting language change by comparing data from the same speech community at different points in time.
Real-time studies provide direct evidence of how language changes over time.
Peter Trudgill's studies of Norwich English demonstrated real-time change.
He observed that features like the dropping of /h/ in words like "house" had increased over fifteen years.

Style

Style refers to the variation in language use according to the context, audience, and purpose within a single speaker's repertoire.
It encompasses the different ways a speaker may express themselves in different situations.
Speakers adapt their language based on factors such as formality, setting, and relationship with the interlocutor.

Audience Design

Audience design suggests that speakers adjust their language styles to suit their audience.
Adjustment is influenced by the speaker's perceptions of the audience's characteristics, such as social background, status, age, and expectations.
The goal of adjusting language is to achieve effective communication and social approval.
A newsreader uses a more formal and standard pronunciation when broadcasting on a national radio station with an educated audience.
A newsreader adopts a casual style with colloquial expressions when on a local station catering to a general audience.

Speech Accommodation

Speech accommodation is the process by which speakers modify their speech patterns to align more closely with or diverge from those of their interlocutors.
These adjustments can occur in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and pacing.
Speech accommodation is influenced by the desire to reduce or emphasize social distance.
A salesperson might adopt a similar accent and use of idioms as the customer to build rapport and increase the likelihood of a sale.

Speech Convergence

Speech convergence is a type of speech accommodation where a speaker adjusts their speech to become more like that of their interlocutor.
Speech convergence often occurs to signal solidarity, reduce social distance, and foster a positive social connection.
A person visiting a different region may subconsciously adopt local expressions and pronunciations to fit in with the residents they are interacting with.

Speech Divergence

Speech divergence is the opposite of convergence.
Speech divergence occurs when a speaker emphasizes the differences between their speech and that of their interlocutor.
Speech divergence can serve to assert identity, signal social distance, or express disapproval.
A teenager might deliberately use slang and non-standard grammar when speaking to adults to assert their youth identity.

Referee Design

Referee design refers to instances where speakers adjust their speech style not to accommodate their immediate audience but to emulate the speech associated with a third party or reference group.
Referee design is often used to evoke certain social meanings or identities connected with that group. - A comedian adopts a stereotypical accent or speech style of a particular social group to entertain the audience by invoking associated stereotypes or characteristics.

Stylisation

Stylisation involves the deliberate use of a speech style or features that are not part of the speaker's regular repertoire.
Stylisation is a form of performance that draws on linguistic resources to create a particular effect.
An actor in a play adopts an exaggerated aristocratic British accent to portray a character from the upper class, even though the actor does not speak that way in everyday life.

Labovian Methodology

Labovian methodology refers to the research techniques developed by sociolinguist William Labov for studying language variation and change.
Key aspects of Labovian methodology include systematic data collection through sociolinguistic interviews, attention to different speech styles, and methods to elicit both formal and casual speech to understand linguistic patterns.
In his studies, Labov would ask participants to read word lists (formal style) and then engage them in casual conversation or ask about emotionally significant events to elicit their vernacular speech (casual style).

Observer's Paradox

The observer's paradox is the dilemma that researchers face when the presence of an observer influences the behavior being observed.
In sociolinguistics, it refers to the difficulty in obtaining natural, unmonitored speech data because speakers may alter their speech when they are aware of being recorded or studied.
A participant might speak more carefully and use more standard language during a recorded interview than they would in everyday conversations with friends, affecting the authenticity of the data collected.

Hypercorrection

Hypercorrection occurs when speakers attempting to use prestigious language forms over-apply language rules or adopt forms they believe to be correct but are actually non-standard or exaggerated.
Hypercorrection often happens in formal contexts where speakers are conscious of their speech and strive to align with higher-status language norms.
Lower-middle-class speakers in New York City pronounce the post-vocalic 'r' more frequently than upper-middle-class speakers in formal situations, overcompensating in their use of what they perceive to be the prestigious pronunciation.

Register

A register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a specific social setting.
Registers are characterized by distinctive vocabulary, syntax, and discourse structures.
Registers are associated with specific activities, professions, or groups and serve to facilitate communication within those contexts.
The language used by lawyers in a courtroom, featuring specialized legal terms, formal syntax, and certain discourse routines, constitutes a legal register that differs from everyday conversational language.

Speech Functions

Speech functions refer to the various purposes that utterances can serve in communication.
They categorize the different ways language is used to convey meaning, perform actions, and fulfill specific communicative intentions.
These functions include expressive, directive, referential, metalinguistic, poetic, and phatic functions.

Phatic Function

The phatic function of speech involves language used to establish or maintain social relationships rather than to exchange information or ideas.
It focuses on social interaction.
The phatic function expresses solidarity and empathy with others through routine expressions and small talk.
Saying "Hi, how are you?" or "Lovely day, isn't it?" when greeting someone serves a phatic function by promoting social rapport.

Directive Function

The directive function encompasses utterances intended to get someone to do something.
It includes commands, requests, suggestions, and other forms of speech aimed at influencing the behavior or actions of others.
A parent saying to a child, "Please clean up your room," is using a directive function to encourage the child to perform an action.

Address Forms

Address forms are the words or titles used to address or refer to someone in conversation.
Address forms reflect the social relationship between interlocutors.
Factors considered in choosing address forms include social distance, relative status, age, and formality.
Choices of address forms can include titles, first names, kinship terms, or endearments.
In a formal setting, using "Dr.Johnson" to address a physician shows respect and acknowledges their professional status.
Calling them "Emily" might be reserved for close friends or family members.

Positive Politeness and Negative Politeness

Positive Politeness: Strategies used to express solidarity, minimize social distance, and emphasize shared attitudes and values. This involves being friendly, informal, and showing interest in the listener.
Negative Politeness: Strategies that show respect for another person's autonomy. This involves being indirect, formal, and acknowledging imposition or social distance.
Example: Positive Politeness: Saying "Let's grab lunch together—you can tell me all about your trip!" to a colleague emphasizes friendliness and shared interest. Negative Politeness: Saying "I'm sorry to bother you, but could you possibly help me with this report?" shows respect for the colleague's time and acknowledges that you're requesting a favor.

Impoliteness

Impoliteness involves language or behavior that is perceived as rude, disrespectful, or inappropriate in a given social context.
Impoliteness can damage social harmony by offending others, disregarding social norms, or violating expectations of respectful interaction.
In a conversation, abruptly saying "That's a stupid idea!" in response to someone's suggestion is impolite because it dismisses their input in a disrespectful manner.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Cross-cultural communication refers to the process of recognizing, understanding, and managing the similarities and differences in language use, norms, and practices when people from different cultural backgrounds interact.
It involves learning about and adapting to different communicative styles to avoid misunderstandings and foster effective communication.
A handshake is a common greeting in many Western cultures.
In some Asian cultures, a bow is the customary form of greeting.
Understanding these differences is important in cross-cultural communication to show respect and avoid causing offense.

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