Learning Strategies and Styles Quiz

Language, Learning, and Teaching

• Different schools of thought are discussed
• Method and postmethod eras are covered

Structural Linguistics (1940-1950)

• Application of scientific observation of human languages
• Focus on publicly observable responses
• Linguists' task is to describe a language
• Reductionist view: language is a system of rules; a sum of different parts (syntax, semantics, phonetics, etc.) creates the whole
• Development of structural drills and pattern practice

Behavioral Psychology

• Focus on publicly observable responses
• Use of scientific method, including careful observation and skepticism
• Importance of classical and operant conditioning
• Emphasis on empiricism (only testable things exist)

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical conditioning: stimulus comes before the behavior
• Operant conditioning: behavior comes first, followed by negative or positive reinforcement

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Emotional responses associated with specific stimuli

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Behavior is shaped by consequences (rewards/punishments)

Operant Conditioning: How do we influence behavior?

• Reinforcement: Responses/consequences that increase the frequency of a behavior
• Punishment: Responses/consequences that decrease the frequency of a behavior
• Positive reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase a behavior
• Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus to increase a behavior
• Positive punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease a behavior
• Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior

Generative Linguistics (Chomsky - 1960s)

• Chomsky's theory: Language=set of definite rules to create unlimited sentences
• Originated from Saussure (1916)
• Parole: what is observed and called performance
• Langue: underlying language ability (akin to 'competence')

Competence vs. Performance

• Competence: unobservable knowledge of language
• Performance: observable use of language

Cognitive Psychology

• Meaning, understanding, and knowing are important data points for psychological study
• Shift from description to explanation
• Focus on "why" instead of "what"
• Emphasis on discover psychological principles of organization and functioning

Constructivism

• Cognitive version (Piaget, 1954): Learning is a developmental process of change, self-generation, and construction; builds on prior learning
• Social version (Vygotsky, 1978): Social interaction and discovery are crucial; Zone of Proximal Development is essential

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

• Piaget: Importance of individual cognitive development; Biological timetables and stages are basic; Social interaction triggers development.
• Vygotsky: Rejected predetermined stages; Social interaction fosters cognitive development

Method and Postmethod

• Methods are too prescriptive and top-down
• Postmethod era advocates a bottom-up approach that is context-specific and flexible
• Key aspects: Particularity (e.g., students' needs and context), practicality (e.g., encouraging teachers to theorize), possibility (e.g., socio-political consciousness learners bring)

First Language Acquisition

• Theories of first language acquisition; Practice and frequency; Competence and performance; Imitation

Behaviorism

• Effective language behavior = production of correct responses to stimuli
• Children produce reinforced linguistic responses
• Classical and operant conditioning are important

Challenges of Behaviorism

• Poverty of stimulus: Children are not exposed to enough data to acquire all language features
• Creativity: Children produce new utterances

Mediation Theory

• Psychological model of attitude formation and influence on behavior
• People don't respond directly to stimuli
• Different cognitive components mediate stimuli's perceptions and values

The Nativist Approach

• Children are born with innate ability to organize language
• Language-specific abilities help them learn a language.

Challenges of the Nativist Approach

• Parallel distributed processing: Language learning is not linear

Connectionism

• Learning by strengthening certain connections

Emergentism

• System or entity develops novel properties at certain complexity

Functional Approach

• Need to learn to choose language to meet particular situational needs
• Importance of social context and performance (e.g., ZPD)

Theories of First Language Acquisition

• Behaviorist, Mediation Theory, Nativist, and Functional

Which one is more important between competence and performance?

• Competence refers to underlying knowledge.
• Performance shows observable manifestation of knowledge.

What is wrong with Adam?

• Adam gives nonsensical answer, showing a difference between linguistic competence and performance.

Comprehension vs. Production

• Most research findings suggest comprehension is stronger than production in child language learning.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Common features of all language = principles
• Language-specific aspects = parameters

Do Imitating Work?

• Example showing that children don't always imitate correctly

Practice and Frequency

• Practice doesn't make perfect; but practice does make better

Age and Acquisition

• Critical period hypothesis (CPH), different versions, lateralization, significance of accent, age and language teaching methods

CPH: a sensitive period

• Biologically determined period for language learning
• Acquisition more easily at an earlier age
• Later acquisition becomes increasingly difficult

Hemispheric Lateralization

• Functions assigned to either the left (intellectual, logical, analytic) or right (emotional, social) hemispheres of the brain.

Lower and Higher Order Processes

• Support for neurologically based critical period mainly for authentic accent acquisition
• Weaker support for communicative fluency and higher-order processes

Strong and Weak Versions of CPH

• Sensitive periods are special time windows
• Critical periods require specific experience for subsequent normal functions.

Equilibration

• Process of organization of knowledge stepwise
• From doubt and uncertainty (disequilibrium) to resolution and certainty (equilibrium - and back)
• Cycle continues

Affective Considerations

• Egocentricity\
• Inhibition\
• Language ego\
• Attitude\
• Peer pressure

Language Ego

• Dynamic and flexible through puberty
• New language "threat" or inhibition is less during puberty
• Adaptation is usually easier when sociocultural factors are favorable

Total Physical Response (TPR)

• Method focusing on listening followed by physical responses
• Effective for beginning levels of language proficiency; Use as instructional activity
• No necessary verbal response required

The Natural Approach

• L2 acquisition like child language acquisition
• Exposure to comprehensible input (without forced grammar study) important

Human Learning

• Respondent and operant conditioning; Punishment and reinforcement; Ausubel's Subsumption Theory; Rote vs. meaningful learning; Humanistic approaches

Respondent vs. Operant Conditioning (Pavlov vs. Skinner)

• Skinner's neobehaviorism differed from Pavlov's respondent conditioning in emphasizing the importance of reinforcement following desired behavior instead of preceding stimuli.

Operant Behavior

• Skinner's theory of operant behaviors

Punishment

• Skinner's view of punishment as a response that decreases the frequency of a behavior, either by removing a positive reinforcer or adding an aversive stimulus.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

• Defined examples of positive and negative reinforcement, and punishment.

How do you connect operant conditioning to language learning?

• Step-by-step reinforcement and controlled practice
• Programmed instruction (structured learning at own pace)

Ausubel's Subsumption Theory

• Human learning is a meaningful, relational process where new information relates to existing cognitive structures.

Subsumption

• Meaningful learning, relating, organizing, new knowledge under inclusive concepts.

Rote Learning

• Rote learning as a contrasting concept to subsumption
• Acquisition of discrete units; relatively isolated from existing cognitive structures

Example of Subsumption & Rote Learning

• Examples of subsumption and rote learning.

Rote Learning (continued)

• In rote learning, there's no clear connection and ineffective retention.

Meaningful Learning (continued)

• Acquisition and storage of knowledge anchored to existing cognitive systems.
• Systematic forgetting.

Obliterative Forgetting

• Meaningful learning involves intentional and systematic forgetting as part of the subsumption process.
• Forgetting as a second stage of subsumption, reducing to the common denominator

More Elaborations on Forgetting

• Forgetting is more economical and less burdensome to keep more inclusive concepts while subsuming specific items.

Cognitive Pruning

• Process of eliminating unnecessary details to make a more integrated, inclusive whole.

Rogers's Humanistic Psychology

• Focus on social and interactive nature of learning
• Affective states and context are critical for learning

Key Features of Humanistic Psychology

• Social and interactive nature of learning
• Importance of subjective experiences
• Whole person (emotions are as important as cognition)
• Non-threatening environment

Perspectives on Human Learning: Table

• Overview of different perspectives on human learning, comparing their core concepts

Individual Differences

• Styles vs. strategies; Different learning styles; Self-regulation; Communication strategies

Styles vs. Strategies

• Styles = general characteristics
• Strategies = specific actions

Learning Styles

• Field independence vs. field sensitivity; Random vs. sequential learning; Global vs. particular learning; Inductive vs. deductive learning; Synthetic vs. analytic learning, Concrete vs. abstract leaning; Impulsive vs. reflective leaning; Left-brain vs. right-brain dominance; Ambiguity tolerance vs. intolerance
• Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities

Field Independence vs. Field Sensitivity

• FI: ability to separate parts from the whole, find hidden details, focus on specific information
• FS: ability to perceive the whole picture, larger view

FI vs FS

• Affective aspects based on FI / FS dimensions

FI/FS and language learning

• Some studies connected FI to classroom learning
• FS style correlates with communicative aspects of language learning

Ambiguity Tolerance / AT

• Describes how people perceive and deal with uncertainty/contradictions

Ambiguity Tolerance (continued)

• Pros and cons of being more / less ambiguity tolerant in language learning

Reflectivity & Impulsivity

• Individuals show tendencies towards quick/gambling or slower/calculated decisions.
• Systematic thinkers carefully consider different perspectives.
• Impulsive types take a number of different chances before a solution is attained.

Self-Regulation

• Autonomous process developing awareness, setting goals, monitoring performance, adapting strategies, and holding positive beliefs about self

Strategies

• Specific actions to solve specific problems
• Cognitive; Metacognitive; Socioaffective

Communication Strategies

• Avoidance strategies
• Compensatory strategies

Affective Factors in SLA

• Self-esteem and its different versions; Attribution theory; Willingness to communicate; Inhibition and language ego; Anxiety; Motivation

Self-Esteem

• Global self-esteem
• Situational self-esteem
• Task self-esteem

Attribution Theory & Self-Efficacy

• High self-efficacy=failure attributed to insufficient effort
• Low self-efficacy=failure attributed to external reasons

Willingness to Communicate

• Underlying predisposition toward communication versus avoidance

Application of Language Ego to Language Learning

• Thin ego boundaries vs thick ego boundaries

Anxiety

• Trait vs. state anxiety
• Debilitative (negative) vs. facilitative (positive) anxiety

Language Anxiety

• Communication apprehension\
• Fear of negative social evaluation\
• Test anxiety

Theories of Motivation

• Behaviorist (anticipation of reward)\
• Cognitive (choices, experiences, goals)\
• Constructivist (social context, individual choices, personal values)

Different Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic\
• Extrinsic\
• Integrative\
• Instrumental

Language, Culture, and Identity

• What is culture?\
• Linguistic relativity\
• Acculturation and enculturation\
• Four stages of culture acquisition\
• World Englishes and Imperialism\
• Tips for teaching culture

What is Culture?

• Context of existence, thinking, feeling, and relating to others
• System of rules (explicit & implicit)
• Stability but potential to change

Stereotypes

• Group characteristics assigned to individuals based on cultural membership
• Often inaccurate; dynamic and contextualized culture

Linguistic Relativity

• Language influences how we perceive and think about reality
• Examples like Inuit terms for snow

Acculturation and Enculturation

• Acculturation: adopting culture not native to you
• Enculturation: learning native culture over time

Examples of Acculturation

• Eating new foods\
• Participating in new holidays

Four Stages of Culture Acquisition

• Initial euphoria\
• Culture shock\
• Irritability & hostility\
• Gradual adjustment\
• Accomplishment & acceptance

Deculturation

• Neglect or loss of cultural characteristics, deliberately or incidentally

Social Distance: Parameters

• Dominance / power relationships\
• Extent of integration\
• Congruency

Good Learning Condition

• Positive attitudes between cultures necessary for successful acculturation

Good vs. Bad Language Learners

• Self-perception of distance for effective learning.

World Englishes

• English learning in India not involving a new culture

Linguistic Imperialism

• Devaluation or genocide of native languages

Tips for Teaching Culture

• Activity value customs\
• Avoid stereotypes\
• Avoid devaluing native languages\
• Recognize willingness to participate\
• Be sensitive to gender roles\
• Connect language features and cultural contexts\
• Use students' rich experiences
• Promote intercultural thinking\
• Help students construct social identities in a positive community.

Test your understanding of key concepts in learning strategies, styles, and self-regulation. This quiz covers various communication strategies in education and the implications of individual differences in learning. Brush up on your knowledge about forgetting processes and language principles with thought-provoking questions.