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Questions and Answers

How do experiences shape learning?

Learning involves relatively permanent changes in the state of a learner, brought about by experiences. These changes occur in the nervous system and often result in observable changes in behavior.

What is the relationship between changes in the nervous system, changes in behaviour, and learning?

Changes in the nervous system, brought about by experiences, lead to changes in behaviour, which we define as learning.

Describe how even simple organisms like Aplysia can exhibit learning.

Aplysia, a simple sea slug, demonstrates learning through habituation and sensitization of its gill withdrawal reflex (GWR). Repeated gentle touches lead to a decrease in the GWR (habituation), while a strong stimulus like an electric shock can lead to an increased GWR (sensitization).

Habituation is an increase in a behavioral response after repeated exposure to a non-threatening stimulus.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

Sensitization is a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a non-threatening stimulus.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for their groundbreaking work in classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

Define classical conditioning and provide an example.

Classical Conditioning is a learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces that response. An example is the pairing of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus) which leads to salivation (unconditioned response). Eventually, the bell alone can elicit salivation (conditioned response). Signup and view all the answers

Describe the basic process of classical conditioning.

The process involves the acquisition phase where a neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). After conditioning, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and elicits a conditioned response (CR), which can be similar to the UR. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US) and provide an example.

An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally produces a response without any prior learning. An example is food. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned response (UR) and provide an example.

An unconditioned response (UR) is the natural response to an unconditioned stimulus (US). An example is salivation in response to food. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of classical conditioning?

To give a previously meaningless stimulus (neutral stimulus) a meaning that can produce a predictable response. Signup and view all the answers

What is a neutral stimulus (NS) and provide an example.

A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that does not produce a predictable response before conditioning. An example is a bell that doesn't initially cause salivation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of second-order conditioning and give an example.

Second-order conditioning occurs when a new conditioned stimulus (CS2) is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS1), which in turn has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US). For example, a light (CS2) could be paired with the bell (CS1) which is already associated with food (US). Eventually, the light can trigger salivation, even without the bell or food. Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical time range for effective pairing of a CS and US in classical conditioning?

The optimal timing for effective pairing is typically within around 0.5 seconds to a few seconds. Signup and view all the answers

What is the acquisition phase in classical conditioning?

The acquisition phase is the period when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are repeatedly paired together. This is where the association between the stimuli is formed. Signup and view all the answers

Define extinction in classical conditioning and provide an example.

Extinction is the gradual decrease in the conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US). In Pavlov's experiment, if the bell is rung repeatedly without food, the dog's salivation would eventually decrease. Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery occurs when a conditioned response (CR) reappears after a period of rest, even after extinction. For example, if the bell is rung again after a period of silence, the dog may still salivate, although the response may be weaker than before. Signup and view all the answers

Define generalization in classical conditioning and give an example.

Generalization is the tendency to produce a conditioned response (CR) to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear a white rat, began to exhibit fear towards other white, fluffy objects, such as a white rabbit or a Santa beard. Signup and view all the answers

Define discrimination in classical conditioning and provide an example.

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli, producing a conditioned response (CR) only to the specific conditioned stimulus (CS) and not to others. For example, a cat can discriminate between a plastic bag and a treat bag, only responding to the treat bag with excitement. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the Rescorla-Wagner model and its implications for classical conditioning.

The Rescorla-Wagner model suggests that conditioned stimuli (CS) help animals to learn and predict the occurrence of unconditioned stimuli (US), forming expectations. This model challenges traditional behaviourism, indicating a cognitive component to classical conditioning. For instance, a familiar stimulus might already have associations, making it less effective as a CS compared to a novel one. Signup and view all the answers

Explain why safe injection sites can be considered a classical conditioning scenario.

Safe injection sites can become conditioned stimuli (CS) associated with drug use. The familiar environment becomes associated with drug use, potentially leading to increased tolerance. Using drugs in new environments could decrease tolerance as the CS-US pairing is disrupted. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the cerebellum in classical conditioning?

The cerebellum plays a role in conditioning of fine motor skills, such as the eye-blink reflex. For example, a puff of air (US) can cause an eye-blink (UR). By pairing a tone (CS) with the puff of air (US), the cerebellum can learn to elicit a conditioned eye-blink (CR) in response to the tone alone. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the amygdala play in classical conditioning?

The amygdala is critical for fear conditioning and its associated physiological responses, such as an increased heart rate. When a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an aversive event (US), the amygdala learns to associate the NS with the aversive event, leading to a conditioned fear response. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the neural pathway activated in classical conditioning.

The neural pathway typically involves the amygdala (processing emotional and fearful responses), which triggers activity in the hypothalamus (regulating stress hormones). This activation leads to changes in autonomic nervous system activity, resulting in physiological responses like an increased heart rate. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the evolutionary basis of classical conditioning and provide an example.

Classical conditioning has an evolutionary basis, as it helps organisms learn to adapt to their environments and avoid potential dangers. For instance, if someone becomes sick after eating a particular food, they might develop a lasting aversion to that food and feel nauseous even at the smell. This is known as biological preparedness, meaning that certain associations are easier to learn than others, due to their evolutionary significance. Signup and view all the answers

What type of behaviours are associated with classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is primarily associated with reactive, involuntary behaviours, which are often automatic and reflexive. Signup and view all the answers

Define operant conditioning and provide an example.

Operant conditioning is a learning process where the consequences of an organism's behavior determine the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. An example is a rat in a Skinner box learning to press a lever for a food reward. Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for their contribution to operant conditioning and what was their key experiment?

Edward Thorndike is known for his work on operant conditioning, particularly the ‘puzzle box’ experiment where cats had to learn to escape the box to receive a food reward. His findings led to the Law of Effect. Signup and view all the answers

What are instrumental behaviors in operant conditioning?

Instrumental behaviors are behaviors that require an organism to actively do something, such as manipulating the environment to achieve a desired outcome. These behaviors are contrasted with classical conditioning, in which the behavior is typically a passive response to a stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Define Thorndike's Law of Effect.

Thorndike's Law of Effect states that behaviors that lead to satisfying consequences tend to be repeated, while behaviors that lead to unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated. Signup and view all the answers

What is operant behavior and how does it relate to reinforcement and punishment?

Operant behavior is a behavior that is influenced by its consequences. It can be increased in frequency by reinforcement or decreased in frequency by punishment. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior, while punishment weakens a behavior. Operant behaviors involve active actions that have a direct impact on the environment. Signup and view all the answers

Define reinforcement and provide an example.

Reinforcement is a stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior being repeated. An example is giving a dog a treat for sitting on command. Signup and view all the answers

What is punishment and provide an example.

Punishment is a stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. An example is giving a child a time out for throwing a tantrum. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement involves presenting a stimulus after a behavior, which strengthens the behavior. An example is giving a child a cookie after they clean their room. Negative reinforcement involves removing a stimulus after a behavior, which also strengthens the behavior. An example is taking away a child's chores after they get good grades. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?

Positive punishment involves presenting a stimulus after a behavior, which weakens the behavior. An example is giving a child detention after they fight on the playground. Negative punishment involves removing a stimulus after a behavior, which also weakens the behavior. An example is taking away a child's video game privileges after they get a bad grade. Signup and view all the answers

Define primary reinforcers and provide an example.

Primary reinforcers are stimuli or events that are inherently satisfying and rewarding, often fulfilling biological needs or desires. Examples include food, water, warmth, and sex. Signup and view all the answers

Define secondary reinforcers and provide an example.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli or events that become rewarding through association with primary reinforcers. They are learned to be desirable because of their connection with things that are inherently satisfying. Examples include money, praise, trophies, and good grades. Signup and view all the answers

How does delaying reinforcement affect the effectiveness of operant conditioning?

Delaying reinforcement reduces its effectiveness. The longer the delay between the behavior and the reinforcer, the less effective the reinforcer becomes. A long delay makes it difficult for the organism to connect the behavior with the consequence. Signup and view all the answers

Define extinction in operant conditioning and provide an example.

Extinction in operant conditioning occurs when a previously reinforced behavior stops being reinforced, leading to a gradual decrease in the frequency of that behavior. An example is if a rat stops receiving food pellets for pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever. Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning is when a behavior that has undergone extinction reappears after a period of time, even without any reinforcement. For example, if the rat in the Skinner box stopped pressing the lever for a while after extinction but then started pressing it again, this would be spontaneous recovery. Signup and view all the answers

List the six schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning.

The six schedules of reinforcement are: <ol> <li>Interval schedule</li> <li>Ratio schedule</li> <li>Fixed interval (FI) schedule</li> <li>Variable-interval (VI) schedule</li> <li>Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule</li> <li>Variable-ratio (VR) schedule</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Define interval schedules in operant conditioning.

Interval schedules provide reinforcement based on the passage of time after a correct behavior is performed. Signup and view all the answers

Define ratio schedules in operant conditioning.

Ratio schedules provide reinforcement based on the number of correct behaviors performed. Signup and view all the answers

What is a fixed interval (FI) schedule and provide an example?

A fixed interval (FI) schedule delivers reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, regardless of how many responses were made during that time. An example is an employee receiving a paycheck every two weeks regardless of how much work they've accomplished during that time. Signup and view all the answers

What is a variable interval (VI) schedule and provide an example?

A variable interval (VI) schedule delivers reinforcement based on an average time interval that varies unpredictably. An example is checking email, not knowing precisely when you will receive a message but knowing that you will get one eventually. Signup and view all the answers

What is a fixed ratio (FR) schedule and provide an example?

A fixed ratio (FR) schedule delivers reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. An example is a worker receiving a bonus for every ten products they assemble. Signup and view all the answers

What is a variable ratio (VR) schedule and provide an example?

A variable ratio (VR) schedule delivers reinforcement after a variable number of responses, based on an average number. An example is playing a slot machine, not knowing how many pulls will result in a win, but the average number of pulls per win is consistent. Signup and view all the answers

What is intermittent reinforcement and how does it relate to the intermittent reinforcement effect?

Intermittent reinforcement is a schedule of reinforcement where only some responses are reinforced, as opposed to continuous reinforcement where every response is reinforced. The intermittent reinforcement effect refers to the observation that behaviors learned under intermittent reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction compared to behaviors learned under continuous reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

Define shaping in operant conditioning and provide an example.

Shaping is a process where reinforcement is used to gradually guide an organism toward a desired behavior through successive approximations. An example is teaching a dog to fetch a ball. You would start by reinforcing the dog for picking up the ball, then for moving the ball a short distance, then for bringing the ball back to you, and so on. Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning and provide an example?

Latent learning is learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated in behavior until there is a reason to do so. An example is a rat navigating a maze without receiving any food rewards. It might learn the layout of the maze but not show this knowledge until there is food available at the end of the maze. Signup and view all the answers

What is a cognitive map and how does it relate to latent learning?

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the physical features of an environment, learned through exploration and experience. Latent learning demonstrates that organisms can form cognitive maps without explicit reinforcement, which can later guide their behavior. For example, the rat in the maze experiment might have formed a cognitive map of the maze, allowing it to navigate it more efficiently when food is available. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the brain structures involved in operant conditioning.

The brain structures involved in operant conditioning include the medial forebrain bundle (MFB), which is a pathway from the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens, and the nucleus accumbens. The MFB is rich in dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. The nucleus accumbens plays a role in experiencing pleasure and motivation. Electrical stimulation of these areas can be self-administered and is extremely rewarding, indicating their role in operant learning. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the evolutionary perspective of operant conditioning and provide an example.

Operant conditioning is influenced by biological predispositions, meaning certain behaviors are easier to learn than others due to their evolutionary significance. For example, it is easier to train a rat to press a lever for food than to train a pig to put a coin in a box. This is because food-seeking behavior is a fundamental motivation for rats, while coin manipulation is not a natural behavior for pigs. Signup and view all the answers

Define observational learning and provide an example.

Observational learning is a learning process where an individual learns by watching the actions and behaviors of others. For example, a child might learn to play a new game by watching others play it. Another classic example is Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, where children who observed adults beating a Bobo doll later exhibited similar aggressive behavior towards the doll. Signup and view all the answers

What is a diffusion chain in observational learning?

A diffusion chain is a social learning process where individuals learn a behavior by observing another individual, who has previously learned the behavior from observing someone else. This can occur through repeated cycles of observation and learning. Signup and view all the answers

How does observational learning occur between humans and animals?

There is evidence that observational learning can occur between humans and animals. The enculturation hypothesis proposes that raising chimpanzees in human culture increases their capacity for observational learning, allowing them to learn and imitate complex human behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What are mirror neurons and how are they involved in observational learning?

Mirror neurons are brain cells that fire both when an animal performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that same action. They are found in the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain. Mirror neurons play a vital role in imitation of behavior and prediction of future behavior by understanding the intentions and actions of others. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between implicit and explicit learning.

Implicit learning is a form of learning that occurs without conscious awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition. It is often unintentional and automatic. Explicit learning involves conscious awareness and deliberate effort to learn and remember information. Signup and view all the answers

What are the neural differences between implicit and explicit learning?

Implicit learning is associated with decreased activity in the occipital region of the brain, which is involved in visual processing. Explicit learning shows increased activity in the left temporal lobe, right frontal lobe, and parietal lobe, areas involved in language, working memory, and attention. Signup and view all the answers

Why are disturbed practice and practice testing effective study techniques?

Disturbed practice involves spreading out study activities over time with intervals between repetitions. This allows for better encoding and consolidation of information in long-term memory, leading to improved retention. Practice testing involves actively retrieving information from memory, which enhances recall and retention. Frequent practice tests provide opportunities for retrieval, which strengthens the memory trace and makes it more likely that the information will be remembered later. Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between low-utility and high-utility study techniques and provide an example of each.

Low-utility study techniques are those that are less effective in promoting deep learning and retention, often relying on passive methods like highlighting, rereading, and summarizing. High-utility study techniques are more effective, focusing on active engagement with the material, such as disturbed practice, interleaved practice, and practice testing. An example of a low-utility technique is highlighting text, which can be helpful for focusing on specific information, but doesn’t necessarily lead to deep understanding. An example of a high-utility technique is practice testing, which involves retrieving information from memory, promoting deeper understanding and retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between disturbed practice and massed practice, and which method is more effective for long-term retention?

Disturbed practice involves spacing out study sessions with intervals between repetitions, while massed practice involves cramming material into a short period. Disturbed practice (spaced repetition) is more effective for long-term retention because it allows for better encoding and consolidation of information in long-term memory, leading to greater retrieval later on. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between interleaved practice and blocked practice, and which is more effective in certain subjects like math.

Interleaved practice involves mixing different types of problems or material within a single study session, while blocked practice involves studying similar material together. Interleaved practice is generally more effective for subjects like math because it requires learners to switch between different strategies and concepts, promoting deeper understanding and the ability to discriminate between different types of problems. Signup and view all the answers

What are the benefits of practice testing?

Practice testing, also known as retrieval practice, has multiple benefits for learning and retention. It actively retrieves information from memory, strengthening the memory trace and leading to increased recall later. Frequent testing also helps with transferring knowledge across different contexts and applying it in real-world situations. Practice testing can also reduce test anxiety and enhance attention during learning. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how judgments of learning (JOLs) can trick us into false confidence.

Judgments of learning (JOLs) are our subjective assessments of how well we have learned something. While JOLs can motivate us to study more if we feel we haven't learned well, they can also be inaccurate. This is because simply reading or rereading material can create a sense of familiarity, leading us to believe we know the material better than we actually do. This false confidence can be based on low-level processes like perceptual priming or implicit memory, rather than deeper understanding that leads to successful testing. Practice testing can help identify areas of weakness and prevent overconfidence. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Define learning

How experiences shape relatively permanent changes in the state of a learner. Changes to the nervous system due to these experiences lead to changes in behaviour, which is defined as learning.

How do simple organisms learn?

Even simple organisms can exhibit learning. For example, the sea slug Aplysia shows habituation (decreasing response) and sensitization (increased response) to certain stimuli.