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Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes hemispheric specialization?
Which of the following best describes hemispheric specialization?
What is the primary function of the non-REM sleep stages in the sleep cycle?
What is the primary function of the non-REM sleep stages in the sleep cycle?
How does neuroplasticity primarily benefit the brain?
How does neuroplasticity primarily benefit the brain?
Which area of the cerebral cortex is primarily involved in processing auditory information?
Which area of the cerebral cortex is primarily involved in processing auditory information?
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In cognitive neuroscience, what is a significant focus of study?
In cognitive neuroscience, what is a significant focus of study?
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What is one of the main functions of the autonomic nervous system?
What is one of the main functions of the autonomic nervous system?
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Which gland is primarily responsible for regulating sleep through the secretion of melatonin?
Which gland is primarily responsible for regulating sleep through the secretion of melatonin?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with reward and pleasure responses in the brain?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with reward and pleasure responses in the brain?
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What type of brain mapping technique uses X-rays to visualize brain structures?
What type of brain mapping technique uses X-rays to visualize brain structures?
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Which function is primarily attributed to the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex?
Which function is primarily attributed to the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex?
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Which brain stimulation technique is used to treat conditions like Parkinson’s Disease by delivering electrical impulses directly within the brain?
Which brain stimulation technique is used to treat conditions like Parkinson’s Disease by delivering electrical impulses directly within the brain?
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The primary role of the adrenal glands in the endocrine system is to:
The primary role of the adrenal glands in the endocrine system is to:
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Which part of the brain is responsible for higher functions such as thinking and decision-making?
Which part of the brain is responsible for higher functions such as thinking and decision-making?
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What does a Functional MRI (fMRI) measure to assess brain activity?
What does a Functional MRI (fMRI) measure to assess brain activity?
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Lesioning studies in neuroscience are primarily used to investigate the effects of:
Lesioning studies in neuroscience are primarily used to investigate the effects of:
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Which hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland that plays a crucial role in growth and metabolism?
Which hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland that plays a crucial role in growth and metabolism?
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What is the primary function of Broca's area in the brain?
What is the primary function of Broca's area in the brain?
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What is hemisphere lateralization?
What is hemisphere lateralization?
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During which stage of sleep does REM occur?
During which stage of sleep does REM occur?
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What does neuroplasticity refer to?
What does neuroplasticity refer to?
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Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for understanding the meaning of words?
Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for understanding the meaning of words?
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Which statement about the circadian rhythm is true?
Which statement about the circadian rhythm is true?
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What does cognitive neuroscience primarily study?
What does cognitive neuroscience primarily study?
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What is selective attention?
What is selective attention?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in sleep regulation during dark periods?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in sleep regulation during dark periods?
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Which function is associated with the parietal lobes?
Which function is associated with the parietal lobes?
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Study Notes
Biology & Psychology
- Psychology is concerned with biology because everything psychological is also biological.
- Understanding the brain, nerves, and glands helps understand how they interact to control feelings, thoughts, and behaviours.
The Biological Perspective
- Focuses on the links between biology and behaviour.
- Biological psychology is a branch of neuroscience examining the biological bases of psychological processes, behaviour, and learning.
- Psychologists in this branch are known as behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behaviour geneticists, physiological psychologists, and biopsychologists.
The Nervous System (NS)
- Serves as the body's electrochemical communication network.
- Gathers and processes information.
- Produces responses to stimuli.
- Coordinates the operations of different cells.
- Comprises the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- The central processing unit of the nervous system.
- Includes the motor cortex and Broca's area (speech production).
- Temporal lobes: hearing (primary auditory cortex; auditory association cortex), Wernicke's area (meaning of words).
- Parietal lobes: receives sensory input for touch and body position (somatosensory cortex).
- Occipital lobes: receive visual information (primary visual cortex; visual association cortex).
Subdivisions of Cortex
- The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
- The parietal lobe is responsible for processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, and pain.
- The temporal lobe is responsible for processing auditory information, including language and memory.
- The occipital lobe is responsible for processing visual information.
Brain’s Two Hemispheres
- The two hemispheres communicate via the corpus callosum.
- The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.
- Lateralization refers to the specialization of each hemisphere in particular operations.
The Biological Perspective
- Experience and the Brain: stimulating environments increase synaptic connections, while unused connections are trimmed.
- Brain Plasticity: the brain's ability to adapt to new circumstances.
- Gender differences in the brain: Brain scans reveal some anatomical and functional differences, but their significance is unclear.
- Similarities between male and female brains are greater than differences.
- Brain difference ≠ behavioral difference.
- Differences cannot be replicated across studies.
- Differences could be attributed to behavior and experiences (rather than gender).
Neurological Functions
- Includes consciousness, sleep, and psychoactive drugs.
Biology of Consciousness
- Cognitive Neuroscience: studies the relationship between brain activity and mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, language).
- Consciousness is generated by action potentials in communication among neurons.
- Dual processing: information is processed simultaneously on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
- Parallel processing: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (the brain's natural mode).
- Selective Attention: conscious awareness focused on a particular stimulus (cocktail party effect).
Sleep
- Periodic loss of consciousness distinct from unconsciousness (coma, anaesthesia).
- Biological rhythms are natural cycles of activity the body goes through (e.g. heartbeat, menstrual cycle, mood).
- Sleep-Wake cycle: Circadian rhythm (circa: about; diem: day) 24-hour cycle.
- Circadian Rhythm is controlled by the brain.
- Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus: acts as the biological clock responding to light and dark changes which can lead to jetlag if out of sync.
- The SCN regulates levels of hormones and neurotransmitters.
- Melatonin (pineal gland): increases in darkness and decreases in light.
- Serotonin: increases when awake and decreases when asleep.
Sleep Stages
- 2 Sleep Periods (Kleitman 1955) cycle of ~ 90mins: Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-REM.
- Sleep cycle repeats 4-5 times a night.
- Sleep stages are defined by brain-wave activity by EEG.
- N1: light sleep, drifting in and out of consciousness.
- N2: body temperature and heart rate decrease, breathing shallow, minor noises won't wake.
- N3 & N4: breathing and pulse decrease, muscles relax, deep sleep, hard to wake (sleepwalking and sleep disorders).
- REM: brain is active, body is inactive (paradoxical sleep).
Why do we need sleep?
- The nervous system works in fractions of seconds; the endocrine system takes several seconds.
Endocrine Glands & Hormones
- Pituitary gland (located in the brain) secretes human growth hormone.
- Pineal gland (located near the base of the cerebrum) secretes melatonin (biological rhythms & sleep).
- Thyroid gland (found in the neck) secretes thyroxin (growth & metabolism).
- Pancreas controls the levels of sugar in the blood, secretes insulin and glucagon.
- Gonads (located in ovaries and testes) regulate sexual behavior and reproduction.
- Adrenal glands (located at the top of each kidney) secrete over 30 hormones (corticoids/steroids) to control stress reactions.
Mapping the Brain
- Lesioning Studies: examining brain areas damaged in animals and people (electrical current destroys target neurons).
- Brain Stimulation: electrical stimulation disrupts/enhances brain areas to study changes in behaviour and cognition.
- Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): invasive stimulation for Parkinson's disease, seizures, and chronic pain.
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): non-invasive stimulation using magnetic impulses for PTSD and depression.
Mapping the Brain
- Mapping Structure:
- Computed Tomography (CT): X-rays map brain "slices" (tumours, stroke damage, metal).
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): magnetic fields and radio receivers provide detailed (and 3D) imaging of brain tissue.
Mapping the Brain
- Mapping Function:
- Electroencephalogram (EEG): amplified recording of electrical activity waves sweeping across the brain's surface, measured by electrodes on the scalp.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET): visual display of brain activity that detects where radioactive glucose goes during a specific task.
- Functional MRI (fMRI): tracks changes in blood oxygen levels (increased levels=increased functioning) to study brain activity linked with specific thoughts and behaviour.
Brain Structures
- Divided into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.
- Hindbrain: functions essential to maintain life.
- Midbrain: connects the hindbrain and forebrain, responsible for sensory and motor functions.
- Forebrain: higher functioning (thinking, decision-making).
Hindbrain
- The Brain Stem: oldest and innermost region; extension of the spinal cord.
- Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movement, posture, and balance.
- Pons: connects the brainstem to cerebellum and other brain areas.
- Medulla: controls essential life functions like breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
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