PHIL 250 Midterm
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Questions and Answers

What is a significant challenge posed by moral relativism regarding the condemnation of harmful practices?

  • It encourages a universal adoption of ethical standards, leading to cultural homogenization.
  • It provides a basis for critiquing practices that are universally harmful based on objective moral truths.
  • It risks justifying harmful practices as 'culturally valid' due to the lack of a universal standard for critique. (correct)
  • It strengthens the enforcement of international laws, ensuring that harmful practices are globally recognized and penalized.

How does moral relativism challenge the concept of universal human rights?

  • By ensuring that all cultures adhere to a strict set of predetermined ethical standards.
  • By questioning the existence of objective ethical standards, which are foundational to the idea of universal human rights. (correct)
  • By creating a single, universally accepted definition of human rights that applies to all cultures.
  • By reinforcing the objective existence of ethical standards necessary for defining universal human rights.

Which of the following is an argument in favor of moral relativism that promotes flexibility?

  • It strictly enforces objective moral truths, leaving no room for individual interpretation.
  • It applies rigid, dogmatic applications of 'objective' moral truths, ensuring consistency.
  • It disregards historical, social, and cultural factors in moral judgments, focusing solely on universal principles.
  • It acknowledges the subjective and context-dependent nature of morality, accommodating pluralism. (correct)

What is the primary concern with applying 'objective' moral truths in a rigid or dogmatic manner?

<p>It prevents the consideration of individual circumstances and cultural contexts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the argument presented regarding cultural relativism, if 'X is good' means 'X is socially approved,' what contradiction arises?

<p>It becomes logically inconsistent to say that something is socially approved but not good. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main assertion of the Cultural Differences Argument in favor of Cultural Relativism?

<p>No moral beliefs are objectively true because all are subject to wide disagreement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a counterexample to the premise that 'no belief subject to wide disagreement is objectively true'?

<p>Historical beliefs, such as the world being in the middle of our solar system, which was once widely debated but has an objective truth. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, which moral belief is presented as one that is NOT subject to wide disagreement?

<p>The belief that murder is wrong. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates that moral justification extends beyond mere authority or rules?

<p>A citizen protests against a discriminatory law, arguing it violates fundamental human rights. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central problem with relying solely on fear of punishment or desire for reward (like divine love) as the primary motivation for moral behavior?

<p>These motivations can lead to moral actions, but do not cultivate a genuine understanding or commitment to ethical principles. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'universality' in the context of moral reasoning?

<p>Moral principles should be applied to every person, regardless of their background or beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Consider a person who does not inherently care about the well-being of others. According to the content, what could be a possible starting point to motivate them to act morally?

<p>Appealing to their self-interest, showing how moral behavior ultimately benefits them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary philosophical issue with claiming that actions are wrong simply because a divine authority forbids them?

<p>It fails to explain <em>why</em> those actions are wrong in the first place, suggesting morality is arbitrary. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios demonstrates a conflict between following a rule and acting morally?

<p>A doctor breaks a confidentiality agreement to report a patient who poses an imminent threat to others. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what fundamental question should one ask when considering the morality of harming another person?

<p>What reason do they have not to harm me, and does that reason apply to them as well? (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagine a society where the legal system permits polluting the environment but a group of citizens argues this is morally wrong, even though it's technically legal. Their argument would align with which concept from the content?

<p>Independent moral reasoning based on principles of harm and fairness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to C.S. Lewis, what is the primary source of disagreement in moral debates?

<p>Disputes over the specific facts and circumstances of a situation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best exemplifies Lewis's argument that disagreements often arise from differing factual interpretations rather than conflicting moral principles?

<p>Individuals disagreeing on whether a particular law infringes upon basic human rights. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Lewis's view on the universality of moral principles?

<p>Moral principles are objective and universally shared, transcending individual preferences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, if two individuals disagree on the morality of a military intervention, what is the most likely cause of their disagreement?

<p>Conflicting interpretations of the facts, such as whether the intervention caused unjustified harm. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of moral disagreements, what does Lewis suggest is secondary to establishing shared principles?

<p>Agreeing on the factual details and consequences of actions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario aligns with Lewis's perspective on moral consensus?

<p>Global acceptance for the need for legal systems, but disagreement of the need for certain punishments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, how do shared moral principles function in debates over contentious issues?

<p>They are agreed upon but are often overshadowed by disagreements over specific facts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Lewis believe understanding principles matters in resolving disagreements?

<p>Clarifying principles doesn't resolve fact-based differences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which action best exemplifies the Principle of Beneficence?

<p>Implementing policies that maximize overall well-being, even if it means some individuals experience a reduction in liberty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where a hospital has a limited number of ventilators during a pandemic, which action would most closely align with the Principle of Justice?

<p>Distributing ventilators through a lottery system, ensuring everyone has an equal chance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A patient with a terminal illness refuses life-saving treatment, choosing instead to focus on palliative care. Which ethical principle is primarily being upheld in respecting this decision?

<p>The Principle of Autonomy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During a house fire, someone makes a split-second decision to save one person over another. Which level of utilitarianism is most applicable to this scenario?

<p>The intuitive level, relying on quick, rule-of-thumb decision-making. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When policymakers have time to carefully analyze data and consider long-term consequences before implementing a public health strategy, which level of utilitarianism are they employing?

<p>The critical level, as it requires thorough evaluation and thoughtful consideration. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions might a utilitarian approach justify overriding individual liberty?

<p>When individual liberty conflicts with the goal of maximizing overall well-being. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key aspect of the East Asian approach to governance, as contrasted with the Western liberal tradition?

<p>Emphasis on communitarian values and social harmony. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does state paternalism manifest within the East Asian approach to governance?

<p>By limiting freedoms to advance the perceived public good. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pluralistic rule utilitarianism differ from hedonistic utilitarianism regarding the determination of intrinsic goods?

<p>Pluralistic rule utilitarianism acknowledges multiple intrinsic goods beyond pleasure, such as justice and knowledge, whereas hedonistic utilitarianism primarily values pleasure. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary basis for moral decision-making in rule utilitarianism?

<p>Following moral rules that generally maximize overall well-being. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could a pluralistic rule utilitarian say about stealing?

<p>Stealing should generally be avoided because a society where stealing is permitted leads to distrust and insecurity, negatively impacting overall well-being. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

<p>Act utilitarianism evaluates morality on a case-by-case basis, whereas rule utilitarianism follows moral rules that tend to maximize overall well-being. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might hedonistic utilitarianism and pluralistic rule utilitarianism differ on the morality of lying?

<p>Hedonistic utilitarianism might justify lying if it maximizes pleasure, whereas pluralistic rule utilitarianism would consider the broader consequences of dishonesty on societal well-being. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to pluralistic rule utilitarianism, which of the following scenarios would most likely be considered morally right?

<p>Implementing a policy that ensures fair access to education for all children, even if it requires additional taxes from wealthy individuals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central criticism of utilitarianism?

<p>It can potentially justify actions that infringe upon individual rights or dignity in the pursuit of maximizing overall happiness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might a system that prioritizes persons without disabilities over persons with disabilities be considered an example of 'ruthless utilitarianism'?

<p>Because it unfairly disadvantages a specific group (persons with disabilities) in the pursuit of maximizing overall well-being, potentially disregarding their equal dignity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why would Mill likely reject the justification of murder based on immediate consequences within a utilitarian framework?

<p>Because allowing such justifications would erode social trust and create long-term unhappiness, conflicting with rule-based utilitarianism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pluralistic rule utilitarianism differ from hedonistic utilitarianism in its approach to defining 'the good'?

<p>Pluralistic rule utilitarianism broadens the scope of 'the good' to include various values such as virtue, knowledge, and freedom, whereas hedonistic utilitarianism primarily focuses on pleasure and the avoidance of pain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Mill's utilitarianism refine Bentham's original concept?

<p>Mill introduces qualitative hedonism, distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures, while Bentham views all pleasures as equal. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason that secretly killing someone is considered a violation of justice within a utilitarian framework?

<p>Such actions, if permitted, would undermine social trust and destabilize society, leading to overall unhappiness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to pluralistic rule utilitarianism, how should one determine the morality of an action?

<p>By adhering to rules that, if consistently followed, would likely produce the best overall consequences, considering multiple goods. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the introduction of fear and uncertainty impact overall happiness within a society, according to Mill's utilitarian perspective?

<p>Fear and uncertainty would reduce overall happiness by undermining social trust and creating anxiety about the potential for harm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the position of a pluralistic rule utilitarian when faced with a moral dilemma?

<p>Apply the rule that, if generally followed, would maximize a variety of long-term goods like virtue, knowledge and freedom. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

<p>A person decides to lie in order to avoid hurting someone's feelings in this specific instant (act) even though lying is a bad general policy (rule). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural relativism influence the approach to understanding different cultural practices?

<p>It encourages tolerance and respect by recognizing the validity of diverse cultural norms within their specific contexts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary challenge that moral realism poses to the justification of cultural practices?

<p>It allows for the critique of harmful practices by providing a universal standard. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical risk is associated with cultural relativism regarding the justification of harmful practices?

<p>It risks justifying harmful practices as 'culturally valid' without a universal standard for critique. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can moral realism accommodate variations in moral practices across different cultures?

<p>By accepting that some moral rules are conventions while upholding objective values. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of moral disagreements, what distinguishes cultural relativism from moral realism?

<p>Cultural relativism asserts that no objective moral truths exist, while moral realism posits their existence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies a challenge posed by cultural relativism regarding universal ethics?

<p>A society defends a practice widely condemned as a human rights violation by citing cultural validity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key implication of denying objective moral truths, as highlighted by moral realism?

<p>It diminishes the ability to condemn universally harmful practices due to lack of a shared standard. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does reductionism challenge the arguments supporting cultural relativism?

<p>By assuming universal principles can be applied uniformly, which may oversimplify moral dilemmas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural relativism, in its original formulation, lead to a contradiction when defining 'good'?

<p>It equates 'good' with social approval, making it contradictory to disapprove of socially approved actions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key assumption in the Cultural Differences Argument for moral relativism?

<p>Widespread disagreement on a belief implies the absence of an objective truth. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary flaw in the No Neutral Standpoint Argument for cultural relativism?

<p>It begs the question by assuming that no moral beliefs can be defended on culturally neutral grounds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would the Product of Culture Argument undermine the objectivity of moral beliefs?

<p>By arguing that moral beliefs, as cultural products, cannot express objective truths. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central aim of the reformulated version of cultural relativism?

<p>To align moral principles with whatever benefits society. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the reformulated version of cultural relativism address the issue of socially approved but harmful practices, like racism?

<p>By arguing that their morality depends on whether they contribute to societal flourishing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does flexibility provide in the perspective of moral relativism?

<p>It accommodates diversity of opinion and context-dependent moral considerations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The original formulation of cultural relativism struggles with which of the following ethical challenges?

<p>Providing a framework for criticizing harmful practices accepted within a culture. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between the original and reformulated versions of cultural relativism?

<p>The original version defines 'good' as social approval, while the reformulated version ties it to societal flourishing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does moral subjectivism differ from the reformulated version of cultural relativism?

<p>Moral subjectivism is based on individual opinion, while the reformulated version of cultural relativism links morality to societal well-being. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does subjectivism address the issue of moral conformity that is problematic for cultural relativism?

<p>By allowing individuals to determine their own moral principles based on personal feelings, thus promoting moral freedom. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does subjectivism circumvent the 'sub-group problem' inherent in cultural relativism?

<p>By shifting the focus from societal norms to individual preferences, thereby avoiding conflicts between overlapping group affiliations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to subjectivism, what constitutes the basis for determining whether something is 'good'?

<p>An individual's personal liking or preference for it. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key challenge posed by subjectivism, as highlighted in the 'divided self-problem'?

<p>The internal conflict between one's rational understanding of right and wrong and one's emotional or self-interested desires. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of subjectivism regarding moral disagreements or debates?

<p>Moral disagreements are fundamentally irresolvable because they are based on personal preferences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Ideal-Observer View attempt to address the identified problems with basic subjectivism?

<p>By specifying that moral principles are derived from what we would desire if we were fully informed and impartial. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Ideal-Observer View, what is the role of reason in ethical decision-making?

<p>Reason plays a crucial role in becoming informed and impartial, which then shapes our moral feelings and judgments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does the Ideal-Observer View present moral judgments as an 'idealization'?

<p>Because humans can never attain complete information or impartiality. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates Nagel's argument for objective morality?

<p>A person supports a law prohibiting pollution because they recognize that others have the same right to a clean environment as they do. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Nagel use the concept of 'resentment' to support his argument for objective morality?

<p>Resentment indicates a recognition that one has been wronged, implying a universal understanding of harm that transcends personal acceptance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central role of 'consistency' in Nagel's argument for objective morality?

<p>Consistency demands that if one expects others to consider their interests, they must also consider the interests of others. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would Nagel likely respond to the claim that morality is simply a matter of personal preference?

<p>He would disagree, asserting that morality involves principles recognizable and applicable to everyone, not just individual desires. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Nagel, what is the consequence of exclusively considering one's own interests when making moral decisions?

<p>It undermines the expectation that others should also consider one's interests, reducing morality to mere self-interest. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Nagel, why is simply following rules not a sufficient basis for moral action?

<p>Rules can be arbitrary, unjust, and may not always reflect principles of fairness, honesty, or the avoidance of harm. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core issue Nagel identifies with grounding morality solely in religious commands?

<p>It doesn't explain why something is wrong independently of the divine command and atheists also make moral judgments. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Nagel use the concept of 'universality' to argue for objective ethical claims?

<p>Universality suggests that moral reasons apply equally to all individuals in similar situations, demanding consistency in moral judgments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If someone claims not to care about the well-being of others, what initial strategy does Nagel suggest to encourage moral behavior?

<p>Offer them incentives, focusing on their self-interest. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Nagel, what is the fundamental problem with defining 'right' and 'wrong' solely based on institutional approval or disapproval?

<p>It fails to account for the fact that institutions and their rules can be unjust and violate ethical considerations; moral justification requires more than just authority. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Nagel's view, what is the most compelling reason to avoid harming others?

<p>The inherent value of avoiding behavior that contradicts how one would want to be treated. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Nagel critique the viewpoint that values are merely subjective and personal?

<p>Subjectivism leads to inconsistencies because it cannot account for how good and harm to particular people pertain to a general point of view. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Nagel, what motivates individuals to act morally when fear of punishment proves insufficient?

<p>Understanding that the reasons preventing others from harming them equally apply to their own actions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central challenge posed by the first horn of the Euthyphro Dilemma (goodness exists independently of God) to supernaturalism?

<p>It undermines the idea of God as the ultimate foundation of morality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the second horn of the Euthyphro Dilemma (goodness is good because God wills it) challenge the meaningfulness of moral goodness?

<p>It suggests that moral goodness is contingent on God's unpredictable will, potentially making it arbitrary. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is the main philosophical concern regarding moral arbitrariness arising from the divine command theory?

<p>It undermines both the reliability and the meaningfulness of morality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does supernaturalism typically view the objectivity of morality?

<p>Morality is typically viewed as objective, derived from a transcendent or divine reality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'atheist objection' claim about the relationship between supernaturalism and moral judgments?

<p>If supernaturalism were true, atheists couldn't consistently make positive moral judgements. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Euthyphro Dilemma challenge the notion of God as the ultimate moral authority?

<p>By questioning whether goodness is determined by God's commands or exists independently of God. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is a significant implication of denying objective moral values?

<p>There would be no rational basis for distinguishing between good and evil beyond God's commands. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would the concept of moral duties change if goodness is solely based on divine command?

<p>Moral duties would be based on divine command alone, without any intrinsic reason. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, what is the primary source of disagreement in debates regarding moral issues?

<p>Differing interpretations of factual details and circumstances. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If two groups disagree on the morality of a military intervention, agreeing that harming innocent people is wrong, where does Lewis suggest their disagreement likely lies?

<p>The factual assessment of whether the intervention prevents harm or causes more harm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario aligns with Lewis's argument that apparent moral disagreements often stem from differing understandings of facts?

<p>Two people disagree on whether a specific killing was self-defense or murder. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, what is the relationship between fundamental moral principles and their application in specific situations?

<p>Moral principles are universally agreed upon, but disagreements arise in their practical application. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best summarizes Lewis's perspective on the universality of moral principles?

<p>Fundamental moral principles are largely consistent across cultures and societies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Within Lewis's framework, how should one approach resolving a moral disagreement?

<p>By identifying the shared moral principles and then clarifying the factual details. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the 'Moral Argument for God’s Existence', what is the implication if objective moral values exist?

<p>God exists. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the inductive version of the 'Moral Argument for God’s Existence', why does God likely exist?

<p>Because God is the best explanation for objective moral values. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, if there is a fundamental disagreement over whether an action is right or wrong, it is most likely due to disagreement over:

<p>The accurate interpretation of the facts of the situation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the disagreement over 'facts' rather than moral principles, according to Lewis?

<p>Disagreement about whether a particular instance of killing constitutes murder or self-defense. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately reflects the Divine Command Theory's challenge presented by the Euthyphro dilemma?

<p>It explores whether actions are morally right because God commands them, or if God commands them because they are inherently morally right. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does theistic moral realism understand the objectivity of moral values?

<p>Moral values are considered objective because they exist independently of individual opinions and are grounded in God's nature or will. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential issue with grounding morality solely in divine commands, according to the problem of moral arbitrariness?

<p>It raises concerns that morality may become arbitrary if something morally questionable is commanded, undermining a consistent ethical foundation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental challenge is present with supernaturalism's claim to grounding objective moral truths?

<p>It struggles with moral epistemology, specifically how humans can know or access these purportedly objective moral truths. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the concept of natural law, from what source do objective moral principles originate?

<p>Human nature as understood through reason. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which category do traffic laws fall into, according to the classification of facts?

<p>Conventional facts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the presupposition of moral progress imply?

<p>Moral progress requires the existence of existing moral standards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key implication of C.S. Lewis's assertion that disagreements are about matters of fact, not moral principles?

<p>Underlying moral principles are universally shared, and disagreements arise from differing interpretations of factual situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, what is a primary source of apparent disagreement in moral debates?

<p>Varying interpretations or understandings of the pertinent facts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If two people disagree on the morality of a military intervention, where does Lewis suggest the disagreement most likely stems from?

<p>Disagreement on the factual consequences or justifications for the intervention. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to natural law theory, what would be a violation of living sociably?

<p>Fostering animosity between yourself and others. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lewis, how can disagreements that appear to be rooted in conflicting moral principles often be more accurately understood?

<p>As disagreements over the relevant facts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a practical implication of Lewis’s view that disagreements often stem from differing factual interpretations rather than conflicting moral principles?

<p>Focusing on clarifying the facts and evidence surrounding an issue. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of objective morality relate to the claim that there is a limit to how much morality can differ between cultures?

<p>It argues for underlying shared moral principles despite superficial differences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Lewis’s perspective on moral disagreements inform strategies for resolving ethical disputes?

<p>By emphasizing the need to first establish a shared understanding of the relevant facts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant, why is the act of making a false promise morally wrong?

<p>It undermines trust and treats the other person merely as a means to an end. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Kant's concept of the Categorical Imperative differ from a hypothetical imperative?

<p>A categorical imperative applies universally regardless of personal desires, whereas a hypothetical imperative is conditional. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'universalizing' a maxim in Kant's ethical framework?

<p>It tests whether the maxim could function without contradiction if everyone followed it. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant, what is the relationship between autonomy and treating others as ends in themselves?

<p>Respecting autonomy means allowing others to make their own choices and not using them merely as tools. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Kant's view, why is telling the truth important in fostering moral interactions?

<p>Truth-telling enables others to exercise their autonomy by making informed decisions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Kant's moral philosophy define the role of 'experience' in determining moral actions?

<p>Experience is considered unreliable as a basis for moral principles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant, what happens when everyone adopts the maxim of lying when it benefits them?

<p>Trust breaks down, and communication loses its meaning due to the lack of credibility. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Kant suggest we should do to ensure we are not treating people as 'mere means'?

<p>Give them autonomy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Kant's emphasis on 'good will' influence the assessment of an action's morality?

<p>It requires the action to be motivated purely by respect for moral law to be considered morally good. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant, how does focusing solely on experience undermine the formulation of universal moral laws?

<p>Experience is subjective and varies across different contexts, hindering the identification of universally applicable moral principles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios aligns with Kant's concept of 'duty' as the primary motivation for moral action?

<p>Returning a lost wallet to its owner because one recognizes it as the right thing to do, irrespective of personal gain or recognition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Kantian ethics, why is an action performed with good intentions considered immoral if it yields negative consequences?

<p>Actions are judged solely on their adherence to duty and the moral law, not by their outcomes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions does Kant consider an action to have moral worth?

<p>When it is done for the sake of duty, driven by respect for the moral law. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Kant's concept of 'will' relate to moral decision-making?

<p>'Will' is the human faculty by which one makes decisions, not the desire behind the decision. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement encapsulates the relationship between universalizability, necessity, and moral law, according to Kant?

<p>Moral law must be universal, applying to everyone without exception, and necessary, being non-optional and derived from reason. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the basis of Kant's assertion that morality cannot be derived from experience?

<p>Experience shows what <em>is</em>, not what <em>ought</em> to be, and it is variable, subjective, and not universally applicable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does utilitarianism determine the moral worth of virtues like honesty and courage?

<p>By evaluating their contribution to maximizing overall happiness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios would a utilitarian most likely consider morally justifiable?

<p>Breaking a promise to fulfill a more pressing need that benefits many people. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Mill's Principle of Utility, what is the ultimate criterion for judging the morality of an action?

<p>The extent to which it promotes happiness and minimizes suffering for all involved. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might a utilitarian respond to the issue of unequal distribution of resources, considering Malthus's concerns about overpopulation?

<p>By promoting social reforms that improve living conditions, provided they do not exacerbate overpopulation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the utilitarian perspective on moral duties?

<p>Moral duties vary based on the specific context and should be determined by maximizing overall happiness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does utilitarianism differ from deontological ethics, such as Kantian ethics, in its approach to moral rules?

<p>Utilitarianism considers consequences when applying moral rules, while deontology focuses on adherence to duties regardless of outcomes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to utilitarianism, under what circumstances might lying be considered a morally justifiable action?

<p>When it maximizes overall happiness and minimizes unnecessary harm. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does utilitarianism relate to the long-term good consequences?

<p>To be a utilitarian means believing that we ought to do whatever maximizes long-term good consequences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following reflects a core justification for restricting individual freedoms in some East Asian societies?

<p>Promoting social cohesion, economic stability, and public health, even if it means limiting certain personal liberties. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'state paternalism' manifest in the East Asian approach to governance?

<p>By the government making decisions deemed to be in the best interests of its citizens, even if it means restricting individual freedoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of East Asian governance, how is the balance between security and privacy typically perceived?

<p>Security and social stability are prioritized, leading to greater acceptance of surveillance even if it reduces personal privacy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might an East Asian government justify strict regulations on speech, such as limitations on hate speech or historical denialism, compared to a Western liberal perspective?

<p>By prioritizing social cohesion and minimizing potential disruptions to societal harmony, even at the expense of absolute free speech. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential criticism of the East Asian approach to governance, despite its successes in economic development and social order?

<p>It may suppress dissent and limit personal freedoms in ways that could be considered authoritarian. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key distinction between hedonistic utilitarianism and pluralistic rule utilitarianism?

<p>Hedonistic utilitarianism considers only pleasure as intrinsically good, while pluralistic rule utilitarianism recognizes multiple intrinsic goods. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to pluralistic rule utilitarianism, why should a general rule against stealing be followed?

<p>Stealing may maximize pleasure in specific situations, but an environment where stealing is permitted would lead to widespread distrust and insecurity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might a 'ruthless utilitarian' approach impact healthcare resource allocation during a large-scale emergency?

<p>By allocating resources to those deemed most 'useful' to society, potentially deprioritizing individuals with disabilities or language barriers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential risk of discrimination when applying utilitarian principles without moral safeguards?

<p>A utilitarian system may, in some cases, lead to the prioritization of healthier individuals over those with disabilities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental principle is violated in the dystopian scenario where a hospital ranks patients by their 'usefulness' to society?

<p>The Principle of Justice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of 'rules of thumb' in two-level utilitarianism?

<p>To provide quick, efficient judgments in urgent situations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to utilitarianism,what dictates the overall importance of liberty and rights?

<p>Liberty and rights are only important insofar as they secure overall well-being. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary ethical concern associated with the 'East Asian approach' of prioritizing security and well-being over individual liberty?

<p>It risks infringing upon fundamental rights and freedoms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is often associated with the East Asian approach to governance that prioritizes security and well-being over individual liberty?

<p>State paternalism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Principle of Autonomy relate to the utilitarian perspective on individual freedom?

<p>Utilitarianism values autonomy insofar as it contributes to maximizing overall well-being, but it may be overridden if necessary. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus under the intuitive level of two-level utilitarianism?

<p>Following established rules of thumb for quick decision-making. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a moral shortcut (heuristic) from an intuitive utilitarian perspective?

<p>Adhering to the rule 'do not lie'. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which action best exemplifies the application of the Principle of Beneficence in public health policy?

<p>Providing free vaccinations to all citizens to prevent the spread of disease. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of civil rights laws in protecting against 'ruthless utilitarianism'?

<p>Civil rights laws ensure that individual rights are protected, even when they conflict with the overall good. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'dehumanization' relate to the critique of utilitarianism?

<p>Utilitarianism, when strictly applied, risks reducing individuals to their perceived usefulness, ignoring their inherent dignity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a central challenge to moral systems that allow absolutely no exceptions to their rules?

<p>They can result in outcomes that seem deeply inhumane. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might a utilitarian respond to the scenario where telling a lie could save the world from destruction?

<p>They would likely consider lying to be the moral action, as it maximizes overall happiness and minimizes suffering. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary criticism of hedonistic utilitarianism?

<p>It could be seen as reducing human life to the pursuit of base pleasures, potentially degrading human values. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would Mill likely respond to the objection that utilitarianism could justify harming someone if it maximizes overall pleasure?

<p>He would reject this, emphasizing the importance of the quality of pleasures and the broader impact on societal well-being. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Mill's utilitarianism, why is secretly killing a rich father to donate his money to a park generally wrong?

<p>Because it violates principles of justice, erodes social trust, and can lead to fear and instability, ultimately reducing overall happiness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most important consideration in pluralistic rule utilitarianism?

<p>Evaluating consequences in terms of multiple goods such as virtue, knowledge, and freedom, and following rules that maximize long-term good consequences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pluralistic rule utilitarianism differ from hedonistic utilitarianism?

<p>Hedonistic utilitarianism defines 'the good' solely as pleasure, while pluralistic rule utilitarianism recognizes multiple intrinsic goods. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Mill, how should we decide if one pleasure is 'higher' than another?

<p>By asking people who have experienced both pleasures which one they prefer, even if the preferred one is accompanied by some discontent. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to pluralistic rule utilitarianism, under what circumstance would it be morally permissible to break a rule?

<p>When following the rule would clearly lead to significantly worse consequences than breaking it, considering a wide range of goods. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might Mill's utilitarianism address the issue of potential harm to a minority group in the pursuit of maximizing overall happiness?

<p>It would consider the long-term consequences of such actions and the importance of justice in maintaining overall social well-being, making it less likely to accept harm to a minority. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagine a scenario where a government is deciding whether to implement a new policy that would greatly benefit the economy but would also displace a small community of indigenous people from their ancestral lands. How would a pluralistic rule utilitarian approach this decision?

<p>They should consider the economic benefits alongside the impact on the indigenous community's way of life, cultural heritage, and other non-economic factors, and choose the option that maximizes overall well-being considering these diverse values and the rules that would support those values. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might a pluralistic rule utilitarian be concerned about a government policy that allows for widespread surveillance of its citizens, even if it leads to a decrease in crime?

<p>Because such a policy could threaten values like freedom, privacy, and trust, potentially leading to a decrease in overall well-being even if crime rates go down., (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pluralistic rule utilitarianism propose to resolve moral dilemmas?

<p>By finding whichever resolution maximizes long term good consequences by following the appropriate and applicable rule. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Shared Moral Principles

Shared moral beliefs exist universally.

Factual Disagreement

Debates on morality often stem from disagreements over factual circumstances, not underlying principles.

Universal Morality

Moral principles are seen as universal and objective, not based on personal opinions.

Application vs. Principles

Disagreements arise over applying moral principles to specific cases, rather than the values themselves.

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Moral Factual Disagreement

True moral disagreement occurs when assessing facts and consequences, like what happened and its effects.

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Lewis's context

Focus his work called Mere Christianity

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Common Understanding

Shared understanding across societies.

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Apply Principles

People's disagreements arise when it comes to how those principles should be applied in specific situations.

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Moral Uncertainty

Difficulty in resolving moral disputes due to the absence of objective moral truths, potentially leading to acceptance of harmful practices.

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Relativism Risks

The risk of justifying harmful practices as culturally valid, lacking a universal standard for ethical critique.

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Erosion of Justice

A challenge to the concept of universal human rights and ethical standards due to varying moral perspectives.

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Flexibility (Moral Relativism)

Acknowledging the subjective nature of morality, accommodating different perspectives on the basis of context.

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Avoids Absolutism

Avoiding rigid application of 'objective' moral truths, preventing fixed and dogmatic rules.

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Respects Diversity

Recognizing that moral values are shaped by various historical, social, and cultural factors.

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Cultural Differences Argument

Moral beliefs are subject to wide disagreement. No belief that is subject to wide disagreement is objectively true, therefore, no moral beliefs are objectively true.

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Murder Disagreement

Believing that murder is wrong is a moral belief that is not subject to wide disagreement, suggesting a counterexample to the idea that all moral beliefs are widely disagreed upon.

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Justice in Society

The concept that justice is essential for a stable and secure society.

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Rule Utilitarianism

A form of utilitarianism where moral rules are followed to achieve the best long-term outcomes.

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Pluralistic Rule Utilitarianism

Evaluating consequences based on multiple goods such as virtue, knowledge, pleasure, etc.

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Maximizing Good Consequences

Always follow the rules whose following would maximize long-term good consequences.

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Pluralism vs. Hedonism

Focuses on a variety of goods (virtue, knowledge) rather than only pleasure.

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Rules vs. Actions

Focuses on rules rather than individual actions for moral evaluation.

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Hedonistic Utilitarianism

The ethical view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad.

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Moral Criteria in Hedonistic Utilitarianism

Actions are morally right if they maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

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Beyond the Rules

Moral judgments extend beyond simply following the rules or laws of a society.

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Moral Evaluation of Rules

Evaluating rules based on moral reasoning means using principles like fairness, honesty, and potential harm to judge whether a rule is ethically sound.

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Independent Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning is the process of making judgments about right and wrong based on principles, not just institutional approval.

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Effects on Others

Morality considers the effects of actions on others, not just individual self-interest.

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Self-Interest Motivation

Motivating moral behavior by appealing to an individual's self-interest (e.g., avoiding punishment).

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Morality and Religion

The idea that morality originates from divine commands or prohibitions.

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Atheistic Morality

The challenge that atheists make moral judgments, suggesting morality isn't exclusively tied to religious belief.

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The Golden Rule Justification

The ethical idea of treating others as you would want to be treated, forming a basis for universal morality.

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Pluralistic Utilitarianism

A form of utilitarianism that recognizes multiple intrinsic goods, not just pleasure.

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Act Utilitarianism

The evaluation of morality is based on individual cases and if it maximizes pleasure.

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Hedonistic View on Stealing

Stealing might be acceptable if it brings more pleasure than pain in a specific situation.

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Pluralistic View on Stealing

General rule against stealing should be followed because allowing stealing would lead to distrust, fear, and insecurity in society.

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Hedonistic Utilitarianism Focus

Focuses on pleasure/pain, evaluates case-by-case (act utilitarianism).

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Pluralistic Rule Utilitarianism Focus

Considers multiple goods, follows rules for best overall consequences.

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Beneficence Principle

Maximize what is good for everyone.

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Justice Principle

Distribute good fairly and equally among all.

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Autonomy Principle

Individuals should freely choose how to live.

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Intuitive Level (Utilitarianism)

Quick, intuitive ethical decisions.

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Critical Level (Utilitarianism)

Careful thought for maximizing good, all facts considered.

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Heuristics

Mental shortcuts aiding quick judgments.

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Communitarianism (East Asian Approach)

Collective well-being prioritized over individual rights.

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State Paternalism

Government limits freedoms for the perceived 'public good'.

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Cultural Relativism

The view that no moral claim is objectively true; truth is culturally relative.

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Cultural Context

The assertion that moral values are shaped by cultural contexts, with no culture's morality being superior.

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Moral Realism

The belief that at least some moral claims have objective truth.

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Objective Truths

Objective truths exist independently of human belief.

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Objective Morality

Actions are objectively right or wrong.

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Tolerance for Diversity

Encouraging tolerance and respect for diverse cultural views.

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Ethnocentrism

The idea that one's own culture is inherently superior to others.

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Conventions

Traffic laws; societal norms that aren't moral laws.

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Cultural Influence on Morality

Moral values are influenced by historical, social, and cultural contexts.

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No Neutral Standpoint

Claims no culturally neutral defense = no objective truths

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Product of Culture

Argues products of culture cannot express objective truths.

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Objective Truth Independence

Objective truths are independent of products of culture.

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Good (Reformulated Relativism)

Good is most conducive to societal flourishing.

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Cultural Good Varies

Moral variance based on societal benefit.

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Reformulated Relativism Benefits

Avoids endorsing harmful norms by linking morality to societal flourishing.

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Social Approval vs. Good

Approving something does not make it good.

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Begging the Question

The argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, rather than supporting it.

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Moral Conformity

Cultural relativism arguably limits moral freedom by requiring approval of societal values, even if deemed immoral.

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The Sub-Group Problem

We all belong to overlapping groups, making it unclear which society's norms apply under cultural relativism.

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Subjectivism

"X is good" simply means "I like X." Moral values are just personal preferences.

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Moral Freedom (Subjectivism)

Subjectivism allows individuals to determine their own moral principles based on personal feelings.

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Subjectivism and Sub-Groups

Subjectivism avoids this issue because moral preferences are individual, not societal.

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Subjectivism's Appeal

Subjectivism aligns with how our feelings often match our moral beliefs.

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The Divided-Self Problem

Internal conflict between different values, desires, or aspects of identity.

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The Ideal-Observer View

The view that 'X is good' means we'd desire X if fully informed and impartial.

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Objective Harm

Harm is objectively bad; not just from the victim's view.

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Objective Moral Values

Moral values are based on reasons everyone can recognize, independent of personal views.

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Moral Consistency

Consistency demands treating others as you expect to be treated.

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Resentment and Morality

Recognizing that others have a similar reason to resent harm as you do.

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Objective Values

Values are objective; some actions are inherently wrong from a universal perspective, not just self-interest.

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Moral Justification

Moral justification goes beyond simply following rules or laws; it involves deeper ethical principles.

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Evaluating Rules

Rules can be arbitrary or unjust; evaluating them requires moral reasoning based on fairness, honesty, and potential harm.

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Principles of Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning should be based on principles of fairness, honesty, and harm, not merely whether an institution allows or forbids something.

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Subjectivity vs Universality

Good and harm to particular people pertains to a general (or universal) point of view and not just our own subjective personal interests

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Atheist's Objection

If supernaturalism is true, atheists can't make consistent moral judgments; atheists can; therefore, supernaturalism is false.

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Euthyphro Dilemma

Does God command what is good, or is something good independent of God's command?

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Arbitrary Goodness Issue

Goodness exists independently of God, challenging God as the ultimate source of morality.

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Moral Arbitrariness Problem

Moral goodness becomes subjective, dependent on God's unpredictable will, undermining objective moral values.

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Problematic Arbitrariness

Undermines the reliability and meaningfulness of morality without a consistent foundation.

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Supernaturalism Morality

Moral values are grounded in a transcendent reality (e.g., God).

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Objective Supernatural Morality

Moral values are not human inventions but come from beyond the natural world.

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Origin of Moral Values

Moral facts come from a source that exists beyond the natural world, such as God.

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Divine Command Theory

Morality based on commands of a divine being.

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Theistic Moral Realism

Moral values are real, objective features grounded in God’s nature or will.

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Moral Epistemology

How can humans know objective moral truths from a divine source?

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Problem of Moral Arbitrariness

The concern that morality based solely on divine will may be arbitrary.

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Natural Law

Objective moral principles discoverable by reason derived from human nature.

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Objective Facts

Objective facts are truths independent of opinion, like math or science.

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Conventional Facts

Facts created by convention/agreement, such as traffic laws.

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Basic Moral Agreement

Basic moral agreement and underlying moral principles across societies.

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Moral progress

Changes in moral views/practices suggest standards exist to measure improvement.

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Difference matters of fact

Moral disagreements stemming from misunderstanding of the situation.

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Violation: gluttony

Violating our life-preserving nature.

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Violation: Bad Parenting

Violating our offspring-promoting nature

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Violation: Fostering Animosity

Violating our social nature.

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Living well

Acting well when we live according to our human nature

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Moral Application vs. Principles

Moral disagreements usually involve applying principles to situations, not the principles themselves.

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Moral Disagreement Source

True moral disagreements are often about facts and consequences, not the rightness or wrongness of the action in principle.

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Fact Interpretation

Moral principles are largely agreed upon; disagreements arise when interpreting facts to fit those principles.

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Moral Argument for God

Objective moral values exist, and God offers the best explanation for their existence.

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Murder Morality

Most people agree on the basic moral principle: It is wrong to kill an innocent person.

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Self-Defense vs Murder

Disagreement emerges on whether an act is truly murder or self-defense.

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Danger Assessment

Disagreement over facts: Was the person truly in danger? Was the response proportionate to the threat? Was the action necessary to prevent harm?

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Case-Based Morality

Conflicts happen when we debate whether a particular case fits general moral principles.

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Intent vs Consequences

The disagreement is often over factual details (what happened, circumstances relating to intent, consequences) rather than over the fundamental moral laws themselves.

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Harm Recognition

Recognizing actions that cause harm to innocent people is generally considered wrong, regardless of cultural differences.

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Metaethics

Examines the meaning, source, and nature of moral values and judgments.

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Normative ethics

Establishes moral principles or rules for behavior, focusing on what we should do.

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Primacy of Duty

The view that intentions matter for morality, not consequences.

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A Good Will

An action is morally good only if done for the sake of the moral law.

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Will (Kant's View)

A faculty of the human person by which one makes decisions

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Moral Action (Kant)

Acting from pure respect for the moral law.

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Universal Moral Law

Morality must apply to everyone without exception.

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Necessary Moral Law

Morality is non-optional and derived from reason, not experience.

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Maxim

Internal command or principle guiding action.

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Hypothetical Imperative

A conditional command: 'If you want X, do A'.

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Categorical Imperative

An unconditional command: 'Do A', regardless of desires.

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Universalizability Principle

Test if a maxim is moral by asking if it could be a universal law.

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Treating Others as Means

Using someone only for your own purpose, without considering their needs.

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Giving Autonomy

Respecting a person's ability to make their own choices by being truthful.

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Making Others' Ends Our Ends

Making others' goals your own, valuing them as individuals.

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Lying

Reason can deduce that if everyone lies,trust erodes. Kant thinks lying is always wrong.

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Consequentialism

The belief that actions should maximize long-term good consequences.

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Classic Utilitarianism

Always act to maximize overall happiness, considering everyone affected.

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Utilitarian Duty & Virtue

Moral worth is determined by contribution to maximizing happiness.

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Greatest Happiness Principle

Actions are right if they promote happiness; wrong if they produce the reverse.

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Principle of Utility

An impartial principle where everyone's happiness is EQUALLY weighted.

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Right Action (Mill)

Promoting happiness in yourself and others makes an action right.

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Malthus' Concern

Helping the poor would worsen overpopulation.

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Against Exceptionless Rules

Utilitarianism rejects rules with absolutely no exceptions.

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East Asian Collectivism

Prioritizes community needs over individual wants.

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State Paternalism (East Asia)

Belief that the government should guide and protect its citizens.

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Security Over Privacy (East Asia)

Acceptance of monitoring for social stability in East Asia.

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Social Cohesion Priority

Emphasis on societal unity over free expression in East Asia.

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Economic Well-Being Priority

Justifying restrictions on freedom for economic advancement and stability.

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Conflicting moral duties

Moral rules can conflict, creating dilemmas.

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Inhumane Results

Rules without exceptions can lead to unacceptable outcomes.

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Higher Pleasures

Intellectual, moral, and aesthetic pleasures.

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Lower Pleasures

Purely bodily or sensory pleasures

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The General Happiness Principle

Mill believed utilitarianism requires considering the happiness of all concerned, not just the immediate balance of pleasure and pain.

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Importance of Justice

Mill believed that justice is essential for a stable and secure society.

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Moral Criteria; HU

Actions are morally right if they maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

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Bentham's Views

Believed that all pleasures were equal—more pleasure is always better.

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Mill's Views

Argued that some pleasures (intellectual, moral) are higher in quality than others (physical pleasures).

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Consequentialist Focus

The rightness of an action is judged only by its outcomes in terms of pleasure and pain.

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Focus of Rule Utilitarianism

The idea that we should follow moral rules that generally maximize overall well-being.

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Efficiency Over Equality

Maximizing overall well-being by allocating resources to those who contribute the most to society.

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Dystopian Utilitarianism

Sacrificing individual rights for the sake of “efficiency” or the “greater good”.

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Principle of Beneficence

We ought to maximize what is good for all.

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Principle of Justice

We ought to distribute what is good for all in a fair and equal way.

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Principle of Autonomy

Individuals should be free to choose and determine for themselves how they live their lives.

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Intuitive Level

Rough rules of thumb that can be rapidly deployed without deep reflection.

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Critical level

Choosing the action that will maximize the good after careful thought and with all available information.

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Utilitarianism Ideal

For utilitarianism, only well-being really matters.

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East Asian Approach

Constraining liberty for security and well-being.

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Communitarianism Over Individualism

Emphasizes collective well-being over individual rights.

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Study Notes

Is Utilitarianism Dystopian?

  • Civil rights laws protect the equal dignity of every human life from ruthless utilitarianism, especially in cases involving persons with disabilities, limited English skills, or religious needs

Why Utilitarianism is Criticized:

  • Prioritizing efficiency over individual rights could justify allocating resources to those who contribute the most to society
    • Taken to an extreme, this could mean deprioritizing individuals with disabilities, limited English skills, or religious needs because they may be seen as less "efficient" in an emergency
  • Without civil rights laws, a utilitarian system could justify discrimination in the name of the greater good
    • For example, in a strict utilitarian framework, hospitals might prioritize younger, healthier patients over older or disabled patients, which undermines the equal dignity of all lives
  • "Ruthless utilitarianism” suggests that when utilitarian principles are applied without moral safeguards, they can lead to cold, mechanical decision-making that ignores human dignity
    • This is a common theme in dystopian fiction, where societies sacrifice individual rights for the sake of "efficiency" or the "greater good"

Dystopian Example: Utilitarianism in Emergency Healthcare

  • A hospital that operates purely on utilitarian principles during a disaster might rank patients by "usefulness" to society rather than medical need
    • A doctor or engineer might be prioritized over a disabled person or an elderly patient, because they can "contribute" more
    • Those who need language interpreters or religious accommodations might be seen as “slowing down” the process and deprioritized
  • Efficient decision-making can erase human dignity and reduce people to their perceived usefulness in society

Important Principles

  • The Principle of Beneficence: Maximize what is good for all
  • The Principle of Justice: Distribute what is good for all in a fair and equal way
  • The Principle of Autonomy: Individuals should be free to choose and determine for themselves how they live their lives

Two-Level Utilitarianism

  • Intuitive level includes rules of thumb that can be rapidly deployed without protracted and demanding reflection, such as don't kill, don't steal, and be honest
    • Rules of thumb are heuristics (or mental shortcuts that allow people to solve problems and make judgements quickly and efficiently) intended to help up maximize utility in emergency situations or urgent situations
  • Critical level involves choosing the action that will maximize the good when we are thinking in the “cool, calm hour”, with all the facts in hand

Liberty vs Well-Being

  • For utilitarianism, well-being is all that matters, and liberty and rights are only important insofar as they secure well-being
    • Thus a utilitarian approach to the lockdown question may be prepared to override the right to privacy or liberty to protect well-being
  • This leads to various forms of paternalism like surveilling populations, restricting movement, forced quarantines, isolation, etc.
    • Is supportable? This can be weighed up against the question: “Do we really want to support the “East Asian approach of constraining liberty and privacy to support security and well-being”?”

The East Asian Approach

  • This model of constraining liberty and privacy to support security and well-being is often associated with Confucian communitarianism, authoritarian governance, and state paternalism
    • It is a sharp contrast to the Western liberal tradition, which prioritizes individual rights and freedoms over collective stability

Key Aspects of the East Asian Approach:

  • Communitarianism Over Individualism
  • Emphasizes collective well-being over individual rights
  • Confucian values promote social harmony, duty to the family and state, and respect for authority
  • Individual freedoms may be restricted if they are seen as disruptive to social order
  • State Paternalism and Benevolent Governance
  • Governments often justify limiting freedoms by arguing it is for the public good
  • There is a belief that the state has a moral duty to guide and protect its citizens, sometimes making decisions on their behalf
    • Example: Strict COVID-19 measures in China, South Korea, and Singapore limited personal movement but were widely accepted because they were seen as necessary for public health
  • Security Over Absolute Privacy
  • Many East Asian nations accept surveillance and data collection as necessary for social stability
    • In China, The social credit system monitors behavior and rewards or punishes citizens accordingly
    • In Singapore, Extensive surveillance helps maintain low crime rates but reduces personal privacy
  • Legal and Cultural Acceptance of Restrictions
  • Citizens in many East Asian countries tend to have higher trust in government institutions, leading to greater acceptance of restrictions on liberty
    • Example: Japan and South Korea enforce strict regulations on speech (e.g., limiting hate speech and historical denialism), prioritizing social cohesion over absolute free speech
  • Economic and social well-being take precedence over Western-style civil liberties
    • Example: Hong Kong's national security laws were justified as protecting economic and social stability, even though they restricted freedoms
  • The East Asian approach constrains liberty and privacy in ways that Western liberalism often resists, but it is justified by cultural values that prioritize social harmony, security, and well-being
    • Critics argue it can suppress dissent and limit personal freedoms in ways that may be considered authoritarian

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