Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary purpose of practicing exaggerated arm motions while seated?
What is the primary purpose of practicing exaggerated arm motions while seated?
Which of the following statements about speed-assisted exercises is accurate?
Which of the following statements about speed-assisted exercises is accurate?
What components of sprinting does a balanced training program need to address?
What components of sprinting does a balanced training program need to address?
How is the age-predicted max heart rate calculated?
How is the age-predicted max heart rate calculated?
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What is Fartlek training most accurately defined as?
What is Fartlek training most accurately defined as?
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Which phase of the stretch shortening cycle involves the muscle lengthening?
Which phase of the stretch shortening cycle involves the muscle lengthening?
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What effect does a prolonged amortization phase have during explosive movements?
What effect does a prolonged amortization phase have during explosive movements?
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Which of the following exercises is considered less intense compared to single-leg exercises?
Which of the following exercises is considered less intense compared to single-leg exercises?
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What is a key principle for maximizing explosive power in plyometric training?
What is a key principle for maximizing explosive power in plyometric training?
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How often should plyometric training sessions typically occur in a week?
How often should plyometric training sessions typically occur in a week?
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Which factor primarily affects the intensity of plyometric exercises?
Which factor primarily affects the intensity of plyometric exercises?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a type of plyometric exercise?
Which of the following is NOT considered a type of plyometric exercise?
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Individuals weighing over 220 lbs should modify their plyometric training by avoiding which type of jumps?
Individuals weighing over 220 lbs should modify their plyometric training by avoiding which type of jumps?
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Which plyometric exercise involves jumping onto a raised surface?
Which plyometric exercise involves jumping onto a raised surface?
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What is the primary focus during the eccentric action in plyometric training?
What is the primary focus during the eccentric action in plyometric training?
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What distinguishes a compound set from a superset in resistance training?
What distinguishes a compound set from a superset in resistance training?
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Which formula is used to calculate the volume load in resistance training?
Which formula is used to calculate the volume load in resistance training?
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In which phase of the power clean does the second pull occur?
In which phase of the power clean does the second pull occur?
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Which type of validity focuses on whether a test measures what it appears to measure?
Which type of validity focuses on whether a test measures what it appears to measure?
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What does the term 'reliability' refer to in the context of testing?
What does the term 'reliability' refer to in the context of testing?
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Which of the following best describes criterion-referenced validity?
Which of the following best describes criterion-referenced validity?
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What does the T Wave in an ECG reading indicate?
What does the T Wave in an ECG reading indicate?
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How does sodium bicarbonate function as a muscle buffer during exercise?
How does sodium bicarbonate function as a muscle buffer during exercise?
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What does the RR interval in an ECG represent?
What does the RR interval in an ECG represent?
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What is a primary effect of increased hydrogen ions during exercise?
What is a primary effect of increased hydrogen ions during exercise?
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Which statement correctly describes beta-alanine supplementation effects?
Which statement correctly describes beta-alanine supplementation effects?
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Which of the following factors is most likely influenced by muscle buffering during intense activity?
Which of the following factors is most likely influenced by muscle buffering during intense activity?
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Which physiological process is primarily measured by a Low-Speed Strength Test like the 1RM Back Squat?
Which physiological process is primarily measured by a Low-Speed Strength Test like the 1RM Back Squat?
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What is a significant consequence of avoiding extreme pH levels in the body?
What is a significant consequence of avoiding extreme pH levels in the body?
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What is the main function of glycogenolysis?
What is the main function of glycogenolysis?
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Where does fatty acid synthesis primarily occur in the body?
Where does fatty acid synthesis primarily occur in the body?
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Which statement about the A band and I band during muscle contraction is true?
Which statement about the A band and I band during muscle contraction is true?
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What primarily triggers the need for glycogenolysis in the body?
What primarily triggers the need for glycogenolysis in the body?
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What is the primary outcome of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?
What is the primary outcome of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?
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How does aerobic training affect mitochondrial density?
How does aerobic training affect mitochondrial density?
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What happens to deoxygenated blood after it enters the heart from the body?
What happens to deoxygenated blood after it enters the heart from the body?
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What is the relationship between lipogenesis and glycogenesis?
What is the relationship between lipogenesis and glycogenesis?
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What is the main purpose of tapering in an athlete's training regimen?
What is the main purpose of tapering in an athlete's training regimen?
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How does high-intensity interval training (HIIT) differ from traditional interval training?
How does high-intensity interval training (HIIT) differ from traditional interval training?
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What is the recommended macronutrient ratio for endurance athletes?
What is the recommended macronutrient ratio for endurance athletes?
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Which of the following best describes the calculation for fluid replacement post-exercise?
Which of the following best describes the calculation for fluid replacement post-exercise?
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Which type of adaptation is primarily associated with early training phases or beginners in strength training?
Which type of adaptation is primarily associated with early training phases or beginners in strength training?
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What is the primary goal of cross-training in an athlete's regimen?
What is the primary goal of cross-training in an athlete's regimen?
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To calculate the total caloric intake of an athlete, which of the following is not a necessary calculation?
To calculate the total caloric intake of an athlete, which of the following is not a necessary calculation?
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What is the recommended hydration strategy for activities lasting longer than 1 hour?
What is the recommended hydration strategy for activities lasting longer than 1 hour?
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Study Notes
Torque and Levers
- Eccentric movements produce greater torque than concentric movements in both flexors and extensors.
- First-class levers operate at a mechanical disadvantage (e.g., triceps extension).
- Third-class levers also operate at a mechanical disadvantage (e.g., bicep curl).
- Second-class levers operate at a mechanical advantage (e.g., toe raise).
- Free weights engage stabilizing muscles; machines target specific muscles without requiring stabilization, allowing for more effort.
- Positive work is when muscles apply force (e.g., lifting a weight).
- Negative work is when external force acts on a muscle (e.g., lowering a weight).
- Frontal plane movements include abduction and adduction.
- Sagittal plane movements include flexion and extension.
Energy Systems and Glycolysis
- PCr is a one-step process.
- Glycolysis is a ten-step process producing 6 ATP.
- Pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis, either converting to lactate (anaerobic) or entering the Krebs cycle (aerobic).
- The Cori cycle transports lactate from muscles to the liver, where it's converted to glucose.
Anaerobic Threshold
- Point where lactic acid accumulates faster than it can be cleared, leading to fatigue.
- Training goal is to push lactate threshold to the right (harder, longer effort).
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Pyruvate, fatty acids, and amino acids contribute to acetyl-CoA for entry into the Krebs cycle.
- Slowest energy system but produces the most ATP.
- Fat stores provide nearly unlimited energy for ATP production even in lean individuals.
Hormones and Adaptations
- Testosterone is stimulated by large muscle group exercises (e.g., deadlifts, power cleans).
- Training involves heavy resistance, moderate-to-high volume, short rest intervals (30-60 seconds).
- Growth hormone is stimulated alongside testosterone.
- Increased joint elasticity during the menstrual cycle raises injury risk in women.
- Training for older adults (especially cardiac rehab) involves 10-15 reps per set.
Muscle Contraction
- Z Lines shorten during muscle contraction.
- The H Zone decreases and may disappear during contraction.
- A Band and I Bands remain unchanged during contraction.
All-or-None Principle
- Motor units either fire completely or not at all, impacting muscle contraction strength.
Muscle Actions
- Eccentric: Muscle lengthening under tension (e.g., lowering a weight).
- Concentric: Muscle shortening under tension (e.g., lifting a weight).
- Isometric: Muscle contractions without changing length (e.g., holding a plank).
Muscle Size and Neural Activation
- Larger muscles generally require more neural activation to efficiently recruit motor units.
- Larger muscles typically have greater cross-sectional area, allowing for more activated muscle fibers.
Torque and Joint Velocity
- The relationship between torque and joint velocity affects movement efficiency during both concentric and eccentric actions.
- Eccentric contractions generate force while lengthening muscles (e.g., lowering a weight).
Sarcomere Components
- A-band: Contains thick myosin filaments. Its length remains constant during contraction.
- I-band: Contains thin actin filaments. Its length shortens during contraction.
- H-zone: Contains thick myosin filaments and no overlapping thin filaments; its length shortens during contraction.
- Z-line: Separates adjacent sarcomeres; its length shortens during contraction.
Aerobic and Anaerobic Adaptions
- Resistance training decreases mitochondrial density but never to zero.
- Aerobic training increases mitochondrial density, capillarization, and oxygen transport.
- Detraining decreases mitochondrial density and aerobic capacity.
Blood Flow and Heart Pathway
- Deoxygenated blood enters the heart via superior and inferior vena cavae passing through the right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, and pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
- Oxygenated blood returns from lungs to the left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, and aorta to the rest of the body.
ECG Basics
- P wave: Atrial depolarization.
- QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization (with simultaneous atrial repolarization).
- T wave: Ventricular repolarization.
- RR interval: Measures single cardiac cycle time.
Basic Anatomy and Function
- HIIT variables include intensity, duration, and recovery to indicate how the body responds metabolically.
- Intensity refers to how hard an exercise is performed (often measured as a percentage of maximum heart rate or perceived exertion).
- Duration is the time spent in each interval and the overall workout duration.
- Effect on metabolism can involve increased demand for oxygen and energy substrates leading to greater calorie burn during and after the workout (EPOC).
- Metabolism: This can enhance both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems.
- Planes of movement include transverse, sagittal, and frontal planes.
- Transverse plane involves rotation (e.g., twisting movements).
- Sagittal plane involves flexion and extension (e.g., bicep curls, squats, lunges).
- Frontal plane involves abduction and adduction (e.g., lateral raises, lateral lunges).
- Gas exchange occurs in lungs alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
Youth Strength Gains
- Primarily due to improved motor unit recruitment rather than increased muscle size.
Adolescent Hydration Needs
- Recommendations for water intake during exercise to prevent dehydration.
Female Athlete Bone Health
- Importance of weight-bearing exercises and adequate calcium intake to prevent osteoporosis.
Macronutrient Calculation
- Calculating percentages and grams for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats based on individual needs (including protein, carbs, and fat).
Post-Exercise Nutrition
- Optimal carbohydrate-to-protein ratios (typically 3:1 to 4:1) for recovery.
Carbohydrate Intake Guidelines
- Recommendations for athletes including sports drink carbohydrate concentrations.
- Aerobic endurance training (90+ minutes) requires 8-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight daily; strength, sprint, and athletic activities require 5-6g per kg body weight daily.
Protein Requirements
- Protein requirements vary by athlete type. Vegans may need more protein due to lower quality plant proteins.
- Aerobic athletes require 1.5-1.6g per kg body weight; Strength athletes require 1.4-1.7g per kg body weight.
Creatine Supplementation
- Loading (20g/day for 5-7 days) followed by maintenance doses (3-5g/day).
- Ergogenic benefits for high-intensity exercise.
Vitamins and Minerals
- Vitamins and minerals include A for vision and immune function; D for bone health and immune function; E for antioxidant properties; K for blood clotting; B vitamins for cell growth and development.
Creatine Effects
- Effects may plateau; potentially interact with caffeine and other banned substances.
- Increases strength, power, lean mass, and lessens fatigue.
Glycogenesis vs Other Metabolic Processes
- Glycogenesis is glucose conversion to glycogen for storage.
- Glycogenesis occurs when there is excess glucose.
- Glycolysis is a process that happens when energy is needed.
Gluconeogenesis
- The process of creating glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids).
- Primarily in the liver and to a lesser extent, the kidneys.
Glycogenolysis
- The process of breaking down glycogen to produce glucose.
- Occurs in the liver and muscle cells to provide glucose when needed.
Fatty Acid Synthesis (Lipogenesis)
- Converts excess glucose to fatty acids for long-term energy storage.
- Primary in the liver and adipose tissue to store energy in a less complex way (fat).
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
- Produces NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.
- Located in the cytoplasm of cells.
All-or-None Principle
- Motor units either fire completely or not at all.
Muscle Adaptation and Training
Blood Flow and Gas Exchange
- Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs.
- Oxygen enters the bloodstream from the alveoli and CO2 is expelled.
- Deoxygenated blood enters the heart via the superior/inferior vena cavae followed by the right atrium.
ECG Waves and Heartbeat Cycle
- P wave: Atrial Depolarization
- QRS complex: Ventricles Depolarization with simultaneous Atrial Repolarization
- T wave: Ventricles Repolarization
- Heartbeat Cycle: Time interval between peaks in the QRS complex (RR interval).
Anaerobic and Aerobic Training
- Aerobic training enhances mitochondrial density and capacity.
- Detraining decreases mitochondrial density and capacity.
Motivation
- Internal vs. External Motivation: Internal motivation comes from self-satisfaction, while external comes from outside sources.
- Reversal Theory: Examines how motivation can change based on context.
- Self-Controlled Practice: Allows athletes to set their practice parameters, enhancing engagement.
Anxiety Types
- Cognitive anxiety: Worry about performance.
- Somatic anxiety: Physical symptoms (e.g., increased heart rate).
State vs. Trait Anxiety
- State anxiety is temporary, while trait anxiety is a stable characteristic.
- Process goals emphasize actions and skill execution rather than outcomes.
Ideal Performance State Traits
- Absence of fear, high focus, and time distortion are key traits for peak performance.
Mental Imagery
- Visualizing performance scenarios to improve actual performance.
Eating Disorder Warning Signs
- Changes in eating habits, weight obsessions, and behavioral shifts are warning signs.
Muscle Dysmorphia
- Psychological condition characterized by muscle size obsession and body image.
Gender Differences
- Tanner's stages assess biological maturation, focusing on physical development instead of chronological age.
- Injury risk peaks during growth spurts, particularly in girls with peak height velocity at age 12-14 and girls are more susceptible to injury during menstruation.
Testing Order and Conditions
- Tests should be ordered from least to most fatiguing, respecting the order of tests.
Environmental Conditions
- Monitor and adjust to temperatures and humidity.
- Athletes need time to acclimate to hot/cold environments.
Low Speed Strength Test
- Tests like 1RM back squat measure maximal strength at lower speeds.
- Ideal for well-trained athletes needing maximal force production (e.g., rowers, powerlifters).
Other Tests
- BESS: Tests balance and stability, often used for concussion rehabilitation.
- Hexagon Test: Assesses agility and quickness, commonly for sports like basketball or soccer.
- Wingate Test: Assesses anaerobic power, commonly performed on a cycle ergometer.
- Margaria-Kalamen Test: Measures explosive power, often using a stair climb.
Long-Term Endurance Training
- Can lead to increased stroke volume, enhancing the heart's blood pumping efficiency per beat.
Altitude Adjustments
- Immediate increases in cardiac output occur due to lower oxygen availability.
Tapering
- Training intensity or volume reduction before competition to optimize performance and recovery.
Power Output Calculation
- Use formulas like force x distance / time to calculate power output for exercises like back squats.
Construct Validity
- Demonstrates the ability of a test to represent what it claims to measure (e.g., speed for a football wide receiver test).
Low Construct Validity
- The test does not accurately measure the intended construct (e.g., distance measures for wide receivers).
Criterion-Referenced Validity
- Concurrent validity: Comparison with other measures taken at the same time.
- Convergent validity: Agreement with other valid measures.
- Predictive Validity: Ability to predict future performance.
- Discriminant Validity: Differentiation from unrelated constructs.
Reliability
- A measure of consistency in a test. This is essentially reproducibility.
- Intra-rater reliability: Consistency shown by the same rater over multiple test instances.
- Inter-rater reliability: Consistency seen between multiple raters during the same test instance.
Variables of Importance For Testing
- Temperature, Humidity, Altitude, and Testing Order
Types of Warm-Ups
- General/Specific Warm-Ups:
- General: Increases body temperature.
- Specific: Focuses on used muscles/movements.
Consistency in Testing
- Tests should be conducted in similar conditions across various trials.
- Same procedure and order should be maintained across tests to ensure reliable comparisons.
Training Program Design/Periodization Phases
- Include strength/power phase to focus on high-intensity, low-volume exercises (e.g., push jerks, depth jumps).
- Include a preparatory phase for building general conditioning through moderate-intensity exercises to prepare bodies for intense training.
Load and Repetition Goals
- Techniques to maximize hypertrophy (increase in muscle size) include training at 67-85% of 1RM with repetitions of 8-12.
- Techniques to maximize strength include training at 85% or more of 1RM with low repetitions (3-6).
- Techniques to maximize power include training using 75-90% of 1RM with fewer repetitions (1-5).
Exercise Arrangement
- Use compound sets (e.g., bench press followed by back row) or supersets (e.g., squat paired with deadlift) to increase efficiency.
Safety and Environmental Considerations
- Monitor and adjust for temperature and humidity levels when conducting tests in hot/cold conditions (e.g., acclimatization).
Aerobic and Anaerobic Adaptation
- Resistance training decreases mitochondrial density. Aerobic training increase mitochondrial density.
- Aerobic training enhances blood vessel development and oxygen delivery.
- Aerobic training increases capillary density, stroke volume, and cardiac output.
- Resistance training increases bone density and strength.
Testing Order
- Tests should be conducted in a specified order to minimize fatigue.
Plyometric Progressions
- Jumps in place
- Standing jumps
- Multiple hops
- Bounding jumps
- Box jumps
- Depth jumps
Plyometric Training Program Variables
- Frequency, recovery (2-4 days between training sessions), and intensity (adjusting based on exercise type, athlete's ability, and number of contacts per session).
Plyometric Exercise Types
- Jumps in place
- Standing jumps
- Multiple hops & jumps
- Bounding
- Box drills (e.g., box jumps, bounding onto boxes)
- Depth jumps (step off a box, then jump)
Safety Considerations - Plyometrics
- Body weight, depth jumps, and proper equipment for individuals over 220lbs.
- Adjust height for depth jumps (30-32 inches).
- Proper footwear (e.g., cross-trainers).
- Use suitable landing surfaces (e.g., grass, rubber mats).
- Check ceiling height for space
Plyometric Intensity
- Volume (e.g., 80-100 contacts for beginners).
- Intensity progression: start with lower intensity, increase gradually as ability improves.
Plyometric Drills and Progressions
- Start with double-leg exercises then progress to single-leg exercises.
Important Notes for Certification and Real-World Application
- Safe technique (e.g., landing, maintaining appropriate spine position) is paramount during plyometric training.
Quick Mnemonics for Stretch Reflex
- Rubber Band Effect: Stretch → Stored Energy → Release → Explosive Contraction.
- SEC = "Elastic Energy Store".
- Eccentric = Stretch; Amortization = Pause; Concentric = Propel.
- Minimize Amortization = Faster Rebound
Force vs Rate of Force Development
- Producing a large amount of force over time (heavy squats) enhances the rate of development.
Explosive/Ballistic Training
- Focuses on generating force quickly via plyometrics or sprint training.
- Speed out of blocks (explosively trained athletes) is accelerated by the rate of force development.
- Importance of both explosive and resistance training for sustained effort.
- Focus on stride length vs. frequency with speed-resistant/assisted training (e.g., running with resistance bands, and running downhill).
Monitoring Sprint Performance
- Metrics include ground contact time, step length, flight time, and stride angle.
Excessive Tension in Neck and Upper Back
- Tension in the upper body slows down sprinting.
- Keep the head in line with the spine, and maintain a relaxed torso.
Arm Swing Coaching
- Arm swing helps with momentum and balance.
- Practicing exaggerated arm movements (seated) improves mechanics.
- Maintaining forward lean of the head (initially) until straightening the torso helps avoid overexertion.
Training Considerations for Speed
- Speed-resisted exercises (e.g., running with resistance bands, uphill sprints) improve stride length.
- Speed-assisted exercises (e.g., downhill running) improve stride frequency.
Training Both Aspects (Sprinting Training)
- Combining strength training (to build force production) and explosive training (for rapid force development) with proper technique ensures optimal performance.
Chapter 20 Summary: Program Design
- Max Heart Rate Method: Calculating maximum heart rate (220 - age) and utilizing percentages for exercise intensity.
- Karvonen (Heart Rate Reserve) Method: More precise method accounting for resting heart rate and desired intensity.
Fartlek Training
- Combining continuous running with varying intensities (e.g., sprints, jogging).
- Improves aerobic and anaerobic capacity via alternating between long, slow distance and faster-paced efforts.
Training Intensity Definitions
- Long Slow Distance (LSD): Slow distance running to build aerobic base.
- Pace Tempo: Gradual increase of speed during longer distance runs.
Interval, HIIT, Cross-Training, and Tapering
- Interval training: Alternating periods of high intensity and rest to improve overall aerobic ability.
- HIIT: Short bursts of high-intensity effort followed by rest periods.
- Cross-training: Using different exercises to reduce risk and improve variety.
- Tapering: Reductions in training volume or intensity to maximize performance in specific events.
Periodization
- Traditional model where training intensity gradually increases, often divided into phases (e.g., off-season, preseason, in-season).
- Block periodization further divides training into blocks corresponding with specific goals.
- Linear periodization uses a simple progression of training phases.
Physiological Adaptations
- Neural adaptations develop through motor unit recruitment, firing rates, and intermuscular coordination.
- Hypertrophic adaptations include increased muscle cross-sectional area due to overload, volume, and consistent training.
Energy Systems
- ATP-PC System: Short-term bursts (e.g., sprints, powerlifting).
- Glycolytic system: Moderate-effort activities (e.g., 400m run, HIIT).
- Oxidative system: Endurance activities (e.g., marathons, steady-state cardio).
- Work-to-Rest ratios vary by energy system (e.g., ATP-PC: 1:12 to 1:20, Glycolysis: 1:3 to 1:5, Oxidative: 1:1 to 1:3).
Force Production
- Joint angles optimize force exertion (e.g., depth in squats).
- Muscle activation facilitates use of prime movers (e.g., glutes in hip extension).
- Stretch-shortening cycle maximizes explosive plyometric power.
Sequence of Testing
- Non-fatiguing tests (e.g., weight, vertical jump).
- Agility tests
- Strength and power tests
- Sprinting/speed tests.
- Fatigue anaerobic tests (e.g., 300-yard shuttle).
- Aerobic capacity tests.
Specificity of Tests
- Tests should be tailored to the specific sport/activity of the athlete.
- Sprinters - focus more on 40-yard dash, vertical jump.
- Rowers - focus more on wingate test, 1RM back squat.
Heart Rate Calculations
- Estimated maximum heart rate (220 - age).
- Karvonen method: Estimated maximum heart rate - resting heart rate x desired intensity + resting heart rate
DEXA Scans
- Advanced technology for assessing fat and lean mass.
Underwater Weighing
- Previously a common standard for assessing body density and fat.
Skin Fold Measurements
- Cost-effective method for assessing body fat.
Anthropometry
- Assessing body composition utilizing height, weight, specific body girths (e.g., biceps, hips).
Low-Speed Strength Exercises
- Exercises include bench press, back squat, and deadlift,.
Maximum Muscular Strength and Power
- Testing includes power cleans, vertical jumps, and reactive strength index.
Anaerobic Capacity Testing
- Include tests focusing on shorter-duration explosive activities (e.g., 300-yard shuttle).
Aerobic Capacity Tests
- Measurement of endurance levels (e.g., 1.5-mile run, Yo-Yo, maximum aerobic speed test).
Agility Testing
- T-test, hexagon test, pro agility, and 505 agility test.
Speed Testing
- 40-yard sprint, 100-meter sprint.
Balance and Stability Testing
- Balance error scoring system, star excursion balance test.
Flexibility Testing
- Sit and reach, overhead squat.
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