Overall Exam Review for App - PDF

Torque and Levers Greater Torque in Eccentric Movements: Both flexors and extensors produce greater force concentrically after eccentric actions. Lever Mechanics: o First-Class Lever: Operates at a mechanical disadvantage (e.g., triceps extension)....

Torque and Levers Greater Torque in Eccentric Movements: Both flexors and extensors produce greater force concentrically after eccentric actions. Lever Mechanics: o First-Class Lever: Operates at a mechanical disadvantage (e.g., triceps extension). o Third-Class Lever: Also at a mechanical disadvantage (e.g., bicep curl). o Second-Class Lever: Operates at a mechanical advantage (e.g., toe raise). Free Weights vs. Machines Free Weights: Engage stabilizing muscles. Machines: Target specific muscles without requiring stabilization, allowing harder effort. Positive vs. Negative Work Positive Work: Muscle applies force (e.g., lifting a weight). Negative Work: External force acts on the muscle (e.g., lowering a weight). Joint Movements Frontal Plane: Abduction and adduction. Sagittal Plane: Flexion and extension. Energy Systems and Glycolysis Energy System Steps: o PCr: One-step process. o Glycolysis: Ten-step process, producing 6 ATP. Pyruvate: End product of glycolysis, converted to lactate (anaerobic) or enters the Krebs cycle (aerobic). Cori Cycle: Lactate from muscles is transported to the liver and converted to glucose.  Anaerobic Threshold: Point where lactic acid accumulates faster than it can be cleared, leading to fatigue. o Training Goal: Push lactate threshold to the right (harder, longer effort). Oxidative Phosphorylation Pyruvate, fatty acids, and amino acids contribute to acetyl-CoA for entry into the Krebs cycle. Slowest energy system but produces the most ATP. Fat stores provide nearly unlimited energy for ATP production, even in lean individuals. Hormones and Adaptations Testosterone: Stimulated by large muscle group exercises (e.g., deadlifts, power cleans). o Training: Heavy resistance, moderate-to-high volume, short rest intervals (30-60 sec). Growth Hormone: Stimulated alongside testosterone. Hormonal Changes in Women: Increased joint elasticity during the menstrual cycle raises injury risk. Older Adults Training: 10-15 reps per set (single set is sufficient), especially in cardiac rehab. Muscle Contraction Sliding Filament Theory: o Z Line to Z Line: Shortens during contraction. o H Zone: Decreases and may disappear. o A Band and I Band: Do not change.  Aerobic Training: Improves mitochondrial density, capillarization, and oxygen transport. Detraining: Decreases mitochondrial density and aerobic capacity. Blood Flow and Heart Pathway 1. Deoxygenated Blood: Enters the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → lungs (via pulmonary arteries). 2. Oxygenated Blood: Returns from lungs to the left atrium → bicuspid (mitral) valve → left ventricle → aorta → body. ECG Basics P Wave: Atrial depolarization. QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization (with simultaneous atrial repolarization). T Wave: Ventricular repolarization. RR Interval: Measures the time of a single cardiac cycle. Training Principles Complex Carbs Pre-Workout, Simple Carbs Post-Workout. Aerobic training enhances mitochondrial events, while anaerobic-only training may reduce mitochondrial density. Capillaries facilitate nutrient and gas exchange (oxygen from alveoli to capillaries, CO2 removal). Structural vs. Non-Structural Exercises Structural Exercises: Involve the axial skeleton (e.g., squats, deadlifts). Non-Structural Exercises: Exclude axial skeleton involvement (e.g., leg press). Basic Anatomy and Function o HIIT Variables: o Intensity, Duration, Recovery: These variables dictate how the body adapts metabolically, affecting energy system utilization. o Intensity: Refers to how hard the exercise is performed. This is often measured as a percentage of an individual's maximum heart rate or perceived exertion. o Effect on Metabolism: Higher intensity increases the demand for oxygen and energy substrates, leading to greater calorie burn during and after workout (excess post-exercise oxygen consumption, or EPOC). This can enhance both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. o Duration: The total time spent on each interval and the overall workout duration. o Effect on Metabolism: Shorter intervals (e.g., 20-30 seconds) with maximal effort primarily target anaerobic pathways, while longer intervals (e.g., 1-2 minutes) can shift the focus toward aerobic metabolism. The total workout duration can also influence hormonal responses and overall energy expenditure. o Planes of Movement: o Transverse Plane: Involves rotation (e.g., twisting movements) Russian twists o Sagittal Plane: Involves flexion and extension (e.g., bicep curls, bench, front squat, back squat, lunge). o Frontal Plane: Involves abduction and adduction (e.g., lateral raises, lateral lunge). o Gas Exchange: o Primarily occurs in the alveoli of the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange take place. o Rest Intervals:  o Vary by activity type; for example, longer rest for middle-distance sprints allows for recovery of ATP and creatine phosphate. o PCR 1:12-1:20 o Fast Glycolysis 1:3-1:5 o Fast Glycolysis and Oxidative 1:3-1:4 o Oxidative 1:1-1:3 o Joint Actions: o Dorsiflexion/Plantarflexion: Movements of the foot in the sagittal plane (raising/lowering the toes). o Dorsiflexion point flex o Plantarflexion calf raisers o Muscle Lever Classes: o First-Class Levers: A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum. Mechanical disadvantage. Examples: dips, overhead triceps, seated shoulder press o Second-Class Levers: A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive force acts. Due to its mechanical advantage, the required muscle force is smaller than the resistive force. Example calf raise o Third-Class Levers: A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm shorter than that through which the resistive force acts. The mechanical advantage is thus less than 1.0, so the muscle force has to be greater than the resistive force to produce torque equal to that produced by the resistive force. Mechanical disadvantage. Examples: Bicep curl, triceps kick back, seated leg extension o All-or-None Principle: o Motor units either fire completely or not at all, impacting muscle contraction strength. o Muscle Actions: o Eccentric: Muscle lengthening under tension (e.g., lowering a weight). o Concentric: Muscle shortening under tension (e.g., lifting a weight). o Isometric: Muscle contracts without changing length (e.g., holding a plank). o Muscle Size and Neural Activation: o Larger muscles generally require greater neural activation to recruit motor units effectively. o Larger muscles generally have a greater cross-sectional area, which allows for more muscle fibers to be activated. This can lead to increased force production during contractions. o Strength training can lead to both hypertrophy (muscle size increase) and neural adaptations (improvements in how the nervous system recruits and activates muscle fibers). An increase in muscle size often correlates with enhanced neural efficiency, allowing for better performance with less perceived effort o Torque and Joint Velocity: o The relationship between torque (force applied) and joint velocity affects movement efficiency during concentric and eccentric actions. o In eccentric contractions (e.g., lowering a weight), muscles lengthen while generating force to control the descent. The torque can be significant, as muscles resist the load while stretching o Eccentric actions often allow for greater torque production due to the increased ability of the muscles to withstand higher forces when lengthening. o Sarcomere Components:  o A-band: The dark band of the sarcomere where thick (myosin) filaments are present. The length of the A-band remains constant during contraction. o I-band: The light band that contains only thin (actin) filaments. The I-band shortens during muscle contraction as the actin filaments are pulled toward the center of the sarcomere. o H-zone: The central region of the A-band where there are only thick filaments (myosin) and no overlapping thin filaments. The H-zone shrinks during contraction as the actin filaments slide over the myosin filaments. o Z-line: The boundary between adjacent sarcomeres. The Z-lines move closer together during contraction as the sarcomere shortens. o Components like the H-zone shrink during contraction as actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. o Nothing happens to A band during muscle contraction Aerobic and Anaerobic Adaptations 1. Energy System Reliance: o PCR 5-10 seconds o Fast glycolysis 15-30 seconds o Fast glycolysis and oxidative 1-3 minutes o Oxidative >3 minutes 2. Chronic Training Effects: o Resistance Training: mitochondrial density decreases, enhancing overall energy availability, hypertrophy of type 2 fibers, decreased capillary density, increased buffering capacity, ATP and creatine phosphate storage capacity increase, increase in bone density o Aerobic Training: Enhances cardiovascular efficiency and endurance, increased capillary density, hypertrophy of type 1 fibers, increased mitochondrial density, increased maximal cardiac output, increased stroke volume, and reduced heart rate during rest and during submaximal exercise, no change in bone density 3. Heavy Resistance Training:  o Can increase testosterone o Heavy resistance training can improve aerobic capacity in deconditioned populations 4. Long-Term Endurance Training: o Leads to increased stroke volume, allowing the heart to pump more blood per beat. 5. Altitude Adjustments: o Immediate increases in cardiac output occur at higher altitudes due to lower oxygen availability. o Hyperventilation 6. Tapering: o Reducing training intensity or volume before competition helps optimize performance and recovery. 7. Power Output Calculation: o Use work/time formulas (e.g., force × distance ÷ time) to calculate power output for exercises like back squats. Psychology 1. Motivation: o Internal vs. External: Internal motivation stems from personal satisfaction, while external comes from outside rewards. o Reversal Theory: Examines how motivation can fluctuate based on context. o Self-Controlled Practice: Involves allowing athletes to set their practice parameters, enhancing engagement. 2. Types of Anxiety: o Cognitive: Worries about performance. o Somatic: Physical symptoms of anxiety (e.g., increased heart rate).  o State vs. Trait: State anxiety is temporary, while trait anxiety is a stable characteristic. 3. Process Goals: o Emphasize actions and skill execution rather than outcomes (e.g., focusing on technique rather than winning). o Goals that make the outcome doable ex having good nutrition 4. Ideal Performance State Traits: o Traits include absence of fear, heightened focus, and time distortion, contributing to peak performance. 5. Mental Imagery: o Involves visualizing performance scenarios to enhance actual performance outcomes. 6. Eating Disorder Warning Signs: o Include changes in eating habits, weight concerns, and behavioral shifts. 7. Muscle Dysmorphia: o A psychological condition characterized by an obsession with muscle size and body image. Gender Differences 1. Tanner’s Stages: o Assess biological maturation, focusing on physical development rather than chronological age. 2. Injury Risk: o Peaks during growth spurts, particularly at peak height velocity due to rapid changes in body mechanics. o Peak height velocity 12 for girls o Peak height velocity 14 for boys o Girls are more susceptible to injury while menstruating  3. Youth Strength Gains: o Primarily due to improved motor unit recruitment (neural changes), not just increases in muscle size. 4. Adolescent Hydration Needs: o Recommendations for water intake during activity to prevent dehydration. 3- 8oz every 15 minutes of exercise o 1.5L for every kg lost 5. Female Athlete Bone Health: o Importance of weight-bearing exercises and adequate calcium intake to prevent osteoporosis. Nutrition and Supplementation 1. Macronutrient Calculation: o Calculate percentages and grams for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats based on individual needs. o Protein 4kal o Carbs 4kal o Fat 9kal 2. Post-Exercise Nutrition: o Optimal carbohydrate-to-protein ratios (typically around 3:1-4:1) for recovery. 3. Carbohydrate Intake Guidelines: o Recommendations for athletes, including sports drink carbohydrate concentrations (around 6-8%). Possible 5-10% o Aerobic endurance athletes training 90 minutes or more per day at moderate intensity (70-80% VO 2 max) should aim for 8 to 10 g of carbohydrate per kilogram body weight per day o Athletes who participate in strength, sprint, and skill activities need approximately 5 to 6 g of carbohydrate per kilogram body weight per day  o Within 30 minutes after aerobic endurance training, approximately 1.5 g of higher-glycemic carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight should be consumed to quickly stimulate glycogen resynthesis 4. Protein Requirements: o Varies by athlete type; vegans may need more protein due to lower biological value of plant proteins. o Adults with general fitness programs.8-1g per kg o Aerobic athletes 1- 1.6g per kg o Strength athlete 1.4-1.7g per kg o Combo athletes 1.4-1.7g per kg 5. Creatine Supplementation: o Loading (20g/day for 5-7 days) followed by maintenance doses (3-5g/day); ergogenic benefits for high-intensity exercise. 6. Vitamins and Minerals: o Vitamin A vision, immune function, cell growth, reproduction o Vitamin D bone health, immune system support, mood regulation, muscle function o Vitamin E Antioxidant, immune function, skin health, blood circulation o Vitamin K Blood clotting, bone health, cardiovascular health, cell growth o Vitamin B- water soluble, helps with cell growth and development o Understand water-soluble (B vitamins) and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K); key functions include K for blood clotting and zinc for metabolism. 7. Creatine Effects: o Effects can plateau; be aware of potential interactions with caffeine and banned substances. o Increases strength, power, lean body mass o Less fatigue faster recovery 8. Glycogenesis vs. Other Metabolic Processes: o Glycogenesis is the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage; contrast this with other metabolic pathways. o Location: Cytoplasm of the cell. o Function: Provides energy quickly and is the first step in cellular respiration. Glycogenesis occurs when there is excess glucose, while glycolysis happens when energy is needed. 9. Gluconeogenesis: o Purpose: Synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids). o Location: Primarily in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the kidneys. o Function: Important during fasting or intense exercise when glucose levels are low, contrasting with glycogenesis, which stores excess glucose. 10. Glycogenolysis: o Purpose: Breaks down glycogen back into glucose. o Location: Liver and muscle cells. o Function: Releases glucose when energy is needed, such as during fasting or physical activity, essentially the reverse of glycogenesis. 11. Fatty Acid Synthesis (Lipogenesis): o Purpose: Converts excess glucose and other substrates into fatty acids for long-term energy storage. o Location: Primarily in the liver and adipose tissue. o Function: While glycogenesis stores energy in a polysaccharide form (glycogen), lipogenesis stores it as fat, which is more energy-dense 12. Pentose Phosphate Pathway: o Purpose: Produces NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis. o Location: Cytoplasm of cells.  o Function: Not directly involved in energy storage but important for biosynthesis and antioxidant defense. Muscle Contraction Notes Z Lines and Muscle Shortening o When a muscle contracts, it shortens, bringing Z lines closer together. o The H zone decreases during contraction and can become nonexistent. o A Band and I Band: o The A band remains unchanged during contraction. o The I band also does not change in width. Muscle Adaptation and Training Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Training: o Aerobic training increases mitochondrial density. o Lack of aerobic training can lead to a decrease in mitochondrial density. o Detraining can result in decreased density but never to zero. o Physical fitness adaptations (like muscle strength and endurance) can improve or diminish based on activity levels. Blood Flow and Gas Exchange o Gas Exchange Location: o Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, surrounded by capillaries. o Oxygen enters the bloodstream from the alveoli and CO2 is expelled. o Pathway of Blood Flow: o Deoxygenated Blood: 1. Enters the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava. 2. Flows into the right atrium.  3. Passes through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle. 4. Is pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen. 1. Oxygenated Blood: ▪ Returns from the lungs to the left atrium. ▪ Passes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle. ▪ Is pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body. ECG Basics ECG Waves: o P Wave: Indicates depolarization of the atria. o QRS Complex: Indicates depolarization of the ventricles; the larger size indicates a stronger electrical signal. Depolarization of ventricles and repolarization of atria o T Wave: Indicates repolarization of the ventricles. Heartbeat Cycle: o The time interval between peaks in the QRS complex (RR interval) represents a single heartbeat cycle. Summary Understand the muscle contraction process, the role of aerobic/anaerobic training on mitochondria, blood flow dynamics, and the significance of ECG readings for heart function. Notes on Muscle Buffering and Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Bicarbonate: Key buffer in the body. Buffer Definition: Substances that help maintain pH levels by neutralizing acids or bases. Muscle Buffer Function: o Helps manage blood acidity during exercise.  o Prevents acidosis by eliminating hydrogen ions, which accumulate during intense activity. Acidity vs. Alkalinity: o Exercise leads to increased acidity in the blood. o More hydrogen ions are produced, leading to a drop in pH. Hydrogen Ions: o Byproduct of lactate production during exercise. o Must be eliminated to maintain optimal pH levels. Buffering Process: o Buffers (like sodium bicarbonate and beta-alanine) help remove hydrogen ions, making the blood more alkaline. o Improved blood pH allows for longer and harder exercise performance. Supplementation: o Beta-Alanine and Sodium Bicarbonate: Enhance blood pH, improve performance in high-intensity activities. o Creatine: Aids in ATP production for short, high-intensity exercise. o Phosphocreatine: Involved in the energy system, breaking down phosphate to release energy. Key Points: o Avoid extreme pH levels (too alkaline or too acidic). o Caffeine may be considered a banned substance in some contexts. This summarizes the role of buffers in exercise physiology and the importance of managing blood pH for performance. force=Mass x acceleration Power= force x velocity Work=force x distance Low-Speed Strength Test: Tests like the 1RM Back Squat measure maximal strength at lower speeds. These tests are ideal for assessing well-trained athletes such as rowers, powerlifters, or football players who require maximal force production. Other Tests: o BESS (Balance Error Scoring System): Tests balance and stability, commonly used for concussion rehabilitation. o Hexagon Test: Assesses agility and quickness, commonly used in sports like basketball and soccer. o Wingate Test: Assesses anaerobic power, typically performed on a cycle ergometer, providing insights into an athlete's ability to perform high- intensity, short-duration efforts. o Margaria-Kalamen Test: Measures explosive power through a stair climb, typically used to assess lower body power. Testing Order and Conditions: Order of Tests: 1. Non fatiguing 2. Agility 3. Max strength/ power 4. Sprint/speed 5. Local muscular endurance 6. Fatiguing anaerobic 7. Aerobic capacity test Environmental Conditions: o Monitor temperature and humidity when testing in hot conditions to prevent heat stress. Ensure athletes stay hydrated and give them time to acclimate to hot environments before testing. Assessing Training Needs:  For a lineman with a 5.9-second 40-yard sprint and 20% body fat, based on their sport-specific demands: o Sprint Speed: Improving their 40-yard sprint time could be a priority, given the importance of explosiveness and acceleration in football. Movement Techniques and Errors Jogging and Running Form: Correct form involves: o Keeping a neutral torso (avoid leaning too far forward or backward). o Ensuring feet face forward during strides. o Minimizing vertical oscillation (avoid excessive up-and-down movement). o Eccentric knee flexion absorbs shock during landing, reducing impact forces. Backpedaling Form: Key Technique Cues: o Lean slightly forward at the trunk. o Keep eyes focused straight ahead, not on the ground. o Shift weight to the balls of the feet to maintain stability and quick foot turnover. Exercise Execution: Lunges: o Step moderately forward, with the trailing knee flexing but not touching the floor. o Maintain an upright torso (avoid excessive forward lean) to prevent undue strain on the lower back. Wrist Extension Exercise: o Avoid wrist flexion toward the floor or extending the wrist past a neutral position to prevent strain on the wrist joint. Training Program Design Periodization Phases: Strength/Power Phase: o Focuses on high-intensity, low-volume exercises like the push jerk and depth jumps to develop explosive power. Preparatory Period: o A foundational phase that focuses on building general conditioning through moderate-intensity exercises to prepare the body for more intense training in later phases. Load and Repetition Goals: Hypertrophy: o Training at 67-85% of 1RM, typically aiming for 8-12 reps to maximize muscle size. Strength Training: o Training at 85% or more of 1RM, with lower repetitions (3-6 reps) to develop maximal strength. Power Training: o Training for explosive movements (e.g., power clean) with 75-90% of 1RM, focusing on fewer reps (1-5) to maximize power output. Exercise Arrangement: Use compound sets (e.g., bench press followed by back row) or supersets (e.g., squat paired with deadlift) to efficiently target opposite muscle groups and maximize training time. Safety and Environmental Considerations Testing in Heat: Pre-Test Checklist:  o Measure humidity and temperature in the testing environment. o Allow athletes to acclimate to heat for 7-10 days. o Provide adequate hydration and consider electrolyte balance to prevent dehydration and heat stress. o Warm-up: Never skip the warm-up, as this helps prevent injury, particularly in high temperatures. Rest Intervals: Plyometric exercises (e.g., depth jumps) require short rest intervals (5-10 seconds between reps, 2-3 minutes between sets) to maintain high power output. Multi-joint exercises (e.g., squats, deadlifts) typically require longer rest periods (2-5 minutes) to allow for full recovery due to their higher neuromuscular demand. Plyometric Training Surface and Equipment Safety: Safe Surfaces: Grass or rubberized mats are ideal for plyometric exercises, reducing joint stress. Depth Jump Height: Typically, 24-36 inches is safe for most athletes, but adjust based on experience level and body weight. For a person 220 pounds or over box height should not be higher than 18 inches and they should avoid high volume high intensity Increasing Exercise Intensity: To increase intensity for exercises like the front barrier hop, raise the barrier height or increase the jump distance. JSM-Bo-Box-Depth Progression: Gradually increase the intensity and height of depth jumps as an athlete becomes more proficient. Progressive overload is key to improving plyometric power. Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC) and SEC (Series Elastic Component): The SSC involves a rapid eccentric (stretch) phase followed by a concentric (shortening) phase, which enhances force production.  A greater stretch (eccentric load) typically produces a greater concentric contraction, making the exercise more effective. Core Stability and Instability Training Application of Instability Exercises: Instability exercises are most beneficial for trained athletes aiming to improve core strength and balance, or injured athletes undergoing rehabilitation to enhance joint stability. SAID Principle and Specificity SAID Principle (Specific Adaptations to Imposed Demands): Training adaptations are specific to the movements and intensity of the sport. For example, training for swimming will involve different movements than training for sprinting. Exercises should mimic sport movements and match the intensity of competition for optimal gains. Measurements, Testing Reliability, and Statistical Analysis Measures of Central Tendency: The median is the best measure when interpreting scores with outliers, as it is less affected by extreme values compared to the mean. Test Reliability: Ensure test reliability by standardizing test protocols, explaining the procedure clearly, and incorporating proper warm-ups and cool-downs to minimize errors. Stretching Techniques Static Stretching: Static stretching is effective for reducing muscle spindle activity and aiding in muscle relaxation post-exercise. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF):  Typical PNF protocol includes: o Passive pre stretch (10-30 seconds). o Active contraction of the muscle being stretched (e.g., hold-relax, contract-relax). o Common types of PNF stretches: ▪ Hold-Relax: Stretch 10 seconds, isometric contraction 6 seconds, then stretch again 30 seconds. Autogenic ▪ Contract-Relax: Stretch 10 seconds, full ROM concentric contraction against resistance, then stretch again. Autogenic ▪ Hold relax with against contraction: 10 second stretch, contract quad and add more pressure 6 seconds, stretch 30 seconds reciprocal Non-Traditional and Functional Training Exercises Examples of Non-Traditional Exercises: Exercises such as kettlebell swings, tire flips, and loaded chains can add variety and functional strength to training programs. These exercises are often more sport-specific than traditional weightlifting, improving overall functional strength and athleticism. Complementing Core Lifts: Non-traditional exercises complement core lifts (e.g., squats, deadlifts) by providing training stimuli that simulates sport-specific movements and improve real-world strength application. Exercise & Strength Testing Low-Speed Strength Exercises: Bench press, squat, deadlift. Power Exercises: Power clean, hang clean, power jerk, split jerk. Anaerobic Tests: Typically, last 10-30 seconds (e.g., Wingate Test - 30 seconds). Power Test (Explosive Power): Margaria-Kalamen stair test. Testing Order (Minimizing Fatigue) 1. Non-fatiguing Tests (e.g., weight, vertical jump). 2. Agility Tests. 3. Maximum Strength & Power Tests (power comes first). 4. Sprinting/Speed Tests. 5. Fatiguing Anaerobic Capacity Tests (e.g., 300-yard shuttle). 6. Aerobic Capacity Tests. Strength & Power Training Rep Ranges by Percentage: o 90% = 4 reps o 80% = 8 reps o 67% = 12 reps Power Exercises: Use higher loads with fewer reps; max of 5 reps (1 rep ~90% 1RM, 5 reps ~75% 1RM). Recovery Between Sets Strength & Power: 2-5 min rest. Hypertrophy: 1-1.5 min rest. Endurance: 30 sec rest. Testing Adaptations  Speed Improvement: For example, a 5.9s 40-yard dash may indicate a need for speed training Validity & Reliability Validity: Measures accuracy (e.g., face validity - test appears to measure what it claims). Reliability: Measures consistency (reproducibility). Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, mode, median. Measure of Spread: Standard deviation. Plyometric Progressions 1. Jump in Place. 2. Standing Jumps. 3. Multiple Hops & Jumps. 4. Bounding. 5. Box Jumps. 6. Depth Jumps. Key Technique Points Eccentric Action: Plays a significant role in impact dampening during landings. Concentric: Propulsion Backpedaling Technique: Turn head first for better directional control. Superset vs Compound Set Superset: Opposing muscle groups (e.g., bench press and back row). Compound Set: Same muscle group (e.g., bench press and pec fly). Calculating Volume Load Formula: Volume load = sets × reps × weight. Additional Topics Body Mechanics in Rowing: Maintain slight backward lean unless chest- supported.  Initial Phases of Snatch & Clean: Train with deadlifts for initial phase, shrugs for transition. Split Squat Technique: Keep back straight, take long steps, control rear knee descent. Optimal Surfaces for Plyometric Training: Consider training surfaces for optimal performance and safety. Power clean and power snatch First pull deadlift Transition shoulder shrug/scoop and calf raise Second pull up right row Catch rotate elbows under bar Downward movement phase slowly lower of bar Hand clean and hand snatch eliminate first pull Notes on Construct Validity and Reliability Construct Validity Definition: Ability of a test to accurately represent the construct or theory being measured. Importance: Ensures the test is relevant to the specific athlete's performance (e.g., speed for a football wide receiver). Example: o High Construct Validity: 40-yard sprint for a wide receiver. o Low Construct Validity: 800-meter sprint for a wide receiver, as it doesn't measure the specific speed relevant to their role. Types of Validity 1. Face Validity: Does the test appear to measure what it should? Important for athlete buy-in.  2. Content Validity: Assessment by experts on whether the test covers all relevant components appropriately. 3. Criterion-Referenced Validity: Includes: o Concurrent Validity: Comparison with other measures taken at the same time. o Convergent Validity: Agreement with other valid measures. o Predictive Validity: Ability to predict future performance. o Discriminant Validity: Differentiation from unrelated constructs. Reliability Definition: The consistency of a measure; essentially, reproducibility. Key Concepts: o Intra-Rater Reliability: Consistency of the same rater measuring a test multiple times. o Inter-Rater Reliability: Consistency between different raters measuring the same test. Terminology Intra: Within a single subject (e.g., same person taking the test). Inter: Between multiple subjects or raters (e.g., different people scoring the same test). Summary Construct validity is crucial for ensuring tests accurately reflect an athlete's skills relevant to their sport. Reliability complements validity by ensuring measurements are consistent, with a focus on intra- and inter-rater reliability for accuracy in scoring. Key Environmental Factors Temperature: High heat can impair performance.  Humidity: Greater than 50% can negatively affect endurance tests. Altitude: Significant for athletes transitioning from sea level. Testing Guidelines Heat and Humidity: o Performance may be impaired when temperatures exceed 80°F and humidity exceeds 50%. o Testing can still occur, but caution is necessary. Altitude Acclimatization: o Athletes moving to high altitudes from sea level should acclimatize for 10 days before undergoing aerobic tests. o This period allows the body to adjust and achieve homeostasis. Recommendations Highlight temperature and humidity thresholds in your materials. Always plan for acclimatization when testing at altitude. Notes on Battery of Tests and Test Administration Battery of Tests Definition: An organized sequence of tests used to assess various performance attributes. Protocol: Important to follow a consistent order during testing. Maximizing Test Reliability Reliability: Refers to the reproducibility of test results. Preparation: Athletes should be familiar with the tests and procedures. o Practice: Conduct practice sessions before the actual tests to enhance familiarity. Warm-Up Importance  Types of Warm-Ups: o General Warm-Up: Increases overall body temperature and prepares the body for activity. o Specific Warm-Up: Focuses on the muscles and movements that will be used during the tests. Warm-Up Benefits: Improves test reliability and performance. o Ensure both general and specific warm-ups are performed consistently before each test. Consistency in Testing Same Conditions: Maintain similar testing conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.) across sessions to enhance reliability. Standardization: Follow the same procedures and order for each test to ensure accurate comparisons over time. Key Takeaways Familiarity and preparation are critical for reliable testing. Always incorporate proper warm-ups to ensure athletes are ready. Keep environmental conditions as consistent as possible to avoid influencing test outcome Chapter 13: Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation of Selected Tests Types of Strength Tests Maximum Muscular Strength (Low Speed Strength) o Tests: One-rep max (1RM) for squat, bench, deadlift, isometric movements. Anaerobic (Maximum Muscle Power) o High-speed strength tests: Power cleans, hang snatches, explosive lifts. o Focus on proper form and technique before testing. Anaerobic Capacity Definition: Ability to perform high-intensity activities without oxygen.  Typical test duration: 30-90 seconds (best results in 30-45 seconds). Tests tax the phosphagen system and anaerobic glycolysis. Local Muscular Endurance Tests: Chin-ups, pull-ups, push-ups, etc. Measure how many repetitions can be completed to failure or in a set time. Aerobic Capacity Definition: Body's ability to take in and deliver oxygen. Tests: 1-mile run, Yo-Yo intermittent test, laboratory VO2 max test. Agility Tests Focus: Change of direction. Key tests: T-test, pro agility, 5-0-5 agility test. Speed Tests Definition: Time taken to cover a distance (e.g., 40-yard sprint, 100-meter sprint). Note: 10-yard sprints useful for assessing acceleration, but timing can be challenging. Flexibility Not always linked to performance but valuable for injury prevention. Example: High-performing athletes may have limited flexibility. Balance and Stability Two philosophies: 1. Improve balance by practicing off-balance exercises (e.g., Bosu ball). 2. Build strength for better balance (e.g., single-leg squats). Combining both approaches is ideal. Body Composition Measurement methods: Bioelectrical impedance, skinfold measures, etc. Key Takeaways  Understand different tests and their purposes for certification and exams. Ensure proper technique and form prior to testing. Balance assessments are essential for overall athletic performance. Summary Notes on Body Composition Assessment and Testing Procedures Body Composition Assessment Methods 1. DEXA Scans: o Current gold standard; expensive ($100-$120k). o High-tech, assesses fat and lean mass. 2. Underwater Weighing: o Previously the gold standard; requires large water tank and submersion. 3. Skinfold Measurements: o Cost-effective (~$50 for calipers). o Effective for assessing body fat and lean mass. 4. Anthropometry: o Measures height, weight, and specific body girths (e.g., biceps, waist). o Useful for evaluating strength and conditioning program effectiveness. Testing Categories 1. Low Speed Strength: o Exercises: Bench Press, Back Squat, Deadlift. 2. Maximum Muscular Strength and Power: o Tests: Power Clean, Vertical Jump, Reactive Strength Index. 3. Anaerobic Capacity: o Test: 300-yard shuttle. 4. Aerobic Capacity: o Tests: 1.5-mile run, Yo-Yo test, Max Aerobic Speed test.  5. Agility: o Tests: T-test, Hexagon test, Pro Agility, 505 Agility. 6. Speed: o Tests: 40-yard sprint, 100-meter sprint. 7. Balance and Stability: o Tests: Balance Error Scoring System, Star Excursion Balance Test. 8. Flexibility: o Tests: Sit and Reach, Overhead Squat. Important Testing Considerations Standardization: Ensure consistency in testing conditions. Normative Data: Understand high-performance benchmarks (e.g., 90th percentile). Test Procedures: Familiarize with specific procedures for each test. Statistical Evaluation of Test Data 1. Descriptive Statistics: o Mean: Average score. o Median: Middle score. o Mode: Most frequent score. 2. Variability Measures: o Standard Deviation: Indicates spread of scores. o Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores. o Report as mean ± standard deviation. 3. Z Scores: o Shows how many standard deviations a score is from the mean. 4. Percentile Ranks: o Indicates where an individual stands relative to a normative group. Developing an Athletic Profile  1. Factors to Evaluate: o Sport type, position, metabolic demands. o Athlete’s current strength and performance metrics. 2. Test Selection: o Choose valid and reliable tests. o Administer tests consistently across athletes. 3. Post-Assessment: o Repeat tests for performance comparison. o Use results to adjust training programs. Conclusion Understanding body composition assessments and the various performance tests is crucial for optimizing athletic performance. Focus on proper procedures, statistical evaluations, and developing tailored training programs based on test results. Grip Types Supinated Grip: Palms facing up (e.g., curls). Pronated Grip: Palms facing down (e.g., bench press). Alternated Grip: One hand supinated, one pronated; personal comfort varies. Other Grip: Thumb tucked under fingers; not commonly used in exercises. Grip Positions Narrow Grip: Fingers on the initial smooth part of the bar. Common Grip: Slightly wider than narrow; used for most lifts. Wide Grip: Used for specific lifts like power snatch or wide grip bench press. Bench Press Technique Five Points of Contact: 1. Head on the bench. 2. Shoulders on the bench.  3. Butt on the bench. 4. Right foot flat on the floor. 5. Left foot flat on the floor. Importance of maintaining all five points to avoid poor form. Starting Position for Lifts Feet should be hip to shoulder-width apart. Maintain a neutral spine; avoid bending at the waist. Lifting Phases Concentric Phase: Muscle shortening (e.g., lifting weight). Eccentric Phase: Muscle lengthening (e.g., lowering weight). Remember that concentric and eccentric don't strictly define upward or downward movements. Spotting Techniques Spot at the wrists for dumbbells (incline, flat, shoulder press). For squats, spotters should be positioned on each side. Front squat grip options: o Parallel Arm Position: Hands pronated, narrow grip. o Cross Arm Position: Bar rests on anterior deltoids; elbows must stay up to maintain a neutral spine. Forward Lunge Spotting Spot at the hips, remain close without direct contact unless necessary to avoid throwing off balance. Key Reminders Focus on proper technique and safety during lifts. Practice spotting and grip variations in a controlled environment. summary of Chapter 18: Stretch Reflex, Plyometrics, and Stretch Shortening Cycle (SSC) Key Concepts: 1. Stretch Reflex: o The stretch reflex is a natural reaction to a muscle being stretched. Imagine a rubber band: when stretched and released, it recoils with force. Similarly, muscles store energy during a stretch, which is then released as they contract. o The stretch reflex is crucial in activities like sprinting, jumping, and other explosive movements. o The stretch shortening cycle (SSC) involves three phases: eccentric, amortization, and concentric. ▪ Eccentric: The muscle lengthens (stretch). ▪ Amortization: The brief pause between stretching and contracting. ▪ Concentric: The muscle shortens to propel the body. 2. Series Elastic Component (SEC): o The SEC stores elastic energy during the eccentric phase, which is released during the concentric phase. o If the amortization phase is too long, the stored energy dissipates as heat, reducing jump height and performance. o A rapid eccentric phase, followed by an immediate concentric phase, maximizes performance (e.g., higher jump height). 3. Training for Explosiveness: o To train the stretch reflex and maximize explosive power (like in sprinting or jumping), focus on minimizing the amortization phase. This means reducing the time spent between the eccentric and concentric actions. o Plyometric training aims to train this cycle for faster, more explosive movements. 4. Factors Affecting Plyometric Intensity: o Points of contact: Single-leg exercises are more intense than double-leg exercises. o Speed: Faster movements increase intensity.  o Height: Higher jumps or drops lead to more intense drills (e.g., box jumps, depth jumps). o Body weight: Heavier individuals experience more stress on their joints during plyometric exercises. 5. Plyometric Training Program Variables: o Frequency: Typically 1-3 times per week. o Recovery: 2-4 days between sessions. o Intensity: Adjust based on exercise type and athlete's ability. ▪ For example, beginners might start with 80-100 contacts per session, while advanced athletes might handle 120-140. o Rest: 5-10 seconds between reps, 2-3 minutes between sets. 6. Plyometric Exercise Types: o Jumps in place (e.g., squat jumps, tuck jumps). o Standing jumps. o Multiple hops and jumps (e.g., depth jumps, box jumps). o Bounding (e.g., skipping for distance). o Box drills (e.g., box jumps, bounding onto boxes). o Depth jumps (step off a box, then jump). 7. Safety Considerations: o Body weight: Athletes over 220 lbs should avoid high-impact jumps (e.g., greater than 18 inches). o For depth jumps, the optimal height range is 30-32 inches. o Equipment: Ensure proper footwear (e.g., cross-trainers, not running shoes), and use suitable landing surfaces (e.g., grass, rubber mats). o Ceiling height: Should be at least 3-4 meters for optimal jumping space. 8. Programming Plyometrics in Athletic Training: o Preseason: Plyometrics can be integrated into training if the athlete isn't already doing high-intensity jumps in practice.  o Volume: For beginners, limit the number of high-intensity jumps to avoid overtraining (e.g., 80-100 contacts for beginners). o Intensity progression: Begin with lower-intensity exercises and gradually progress to more demanding drills as the athlete's ability improves. 9. Plyometric Drills and Their Progressions: o Double-leg exercises (lower intensity) → Single-leg exercises (higher intensity). o Low-intensity exercises (e.g., jump rope, line drills) → High-intensity exercises (e.g., box jumps, depth jumps). 10. Important Notes for Certification and Real-World Application: o Remember that safety and proper technique are paramount in plyometric training. o Technique: Focus on good form (e.g., landing with knees aligned over toes, maintaining a neutral spine). o Recovery: Allow adequate recovery to prevent injury and optimize performance. Quick Mnemonics for Stretch Reflex: Rubber Band Effect: Stretch → Stored Energy → Release → Explosive Contraction SEC = "Elastic Energy Store" – like a spring that recoils when released. Eccentric = Stretch, Amortization = Pause, Concentric = Propel. Minimize Amortization = Faster Rebound. This chapter highlights how the stretch reflex and the SSC are central to explosive movements like sprinting and jumping and emphasizes the importance of proper plyometric training to optimize performance and reduce injury risk. Chapter 19 Summary: Sprinting and Speed Development Key Concepts Force vs. Rate of Force Development: o Heavy Resistance Training: Focuses on producing a large amount of force over time (e.g., heavy squats).  o Explosive/Ballistic Training: Focuses on generating force quickly (e.g., plyometrics, sprint training). o Speed Out of Blocks: A sprinter who is more explosively trained will get off the starting blocks faster, while a person with more resistance training may take longer to accelerate but can sustain greater force for longer. The Importance of Both Types of Training: o Sprint Speed: Best results come from combining both heavy resistance training (for force generation) and explosive training (for fast force production). o Usain Bolt Example: Bolt was slower out of the blocks, but his ability to generate force over a longer period of time allowed him to overtake competitors with a better start. Stride Length vs. Frequency: o Speed-Resisted Training (e.g., running with a resistance band): Focuses on stride length. The resistance forces you to stretch your strides further. o Speed-Assisted Training (e.g., running downhill): Focuses on stride frequency. The gravity assistance forces quicker turnover. Monitoring Sprint Performance: o Key metrics for sprinting: Ground contact time, step length, flight time, stride angle, speed, and acceleration. Sprinting Technique Errors & Corrections Hip Position Too High at Start: o Cause: Improper setup in the starting position. o Correction: Space feet 1.5-2 foot lengths apart, lower into the start so that the back leg's shin is parallel to the track surface. Stepping Laterally During Initial Drive: o Cause: Inefficient use of the drive leg. o Correction: Focus on driving through the ground, not stepping outward. Maximize push-off from the power leg. Short, Tight Arm Movement:  o Cause: Restrictive arm swing reduces sprinting efficiency. o Correction: Encourage the athlete to drive the elbows down and back, and to simulate "pulling a rope" with their hands to get a full arm swing. Excessive Tension in Neck and Upper Back: o Cause: Tension in the upper body slows down the sprint. o Correction: Keep the head in line with the spine, and maintain a relaxed torso during acceleration. The head and torso should rise at the same rate during the sprint's transition phase. Coaching Tips for Sprinting Arm Swing: o A full, relaxed arm swing helps with momentum and balance. Practicing exaggerated arm motions while seated can help improve arm mechanics. Head and Torso Alignment: o Ensure that the athlete keeps their head down initially to maintain forward lean. As they transition to top speed, they should gradually straighten their torso without becoming too tense. Training Considerations Speed Resisted Exercises (e.g., running with resistance bands, uphill sprints) improve stride length. Speed Assisted Exercises (e.g., downhill running) improve stride frequency. Both types of training are essential for maximizing sprinting speed, as both stride length and frequency contribute to optimal performance. Takeaways for Sprint Training Training Both Aspects: Combining strength training for force production and explosive training for rapid force development maximizes sprint performance. Technique: Sprinting mechanics (such as hip height, arm swing, and posture) must be addressed to improve efficiency and reduce errors. Balance in Training: Speed development requires a mix of both speed-resisted and speed-assisted exercises to address different components of sprinting. Chapter 20 Summary: Program Design, Training Methods, and Periodization Key Concepts 1. Heart Rate Methods: o Max Heart Rate Method: Age-predicted max heart rate is calculated as 220 - age. From there, exercise intensity is based on a percentage of this max (e.g., 70% intensity = 70% of max heart rate). o Karvonen (Heart Rate Reserve) Method: ▪ Heart Rate Reserve = Age-predicted max heart rate - Resting heart rate. ▪ Target Heart Rate = (Heart Rate Reserve × desired intensity) + Resting heart rate. ▪ Example: If max heart rate = 200, resting heart rate = 60, and target intensity is 70%: (200−60)×0.7+60=116bpm(200 - 60) × 0.7 + 60 = 116 bpm(200−60)×0.7+60=116bpm ▪ This method can be more accurate for determining exercise intensity based on an individual’s resting heart rate. 2. Fartlek Training: o Definition: "Speed play" that combines continuous running with varying intensities (e.g., sprinting a straightaway and jogging a curve on the track). o Purpose: Used to improve aerobic and anaerobic capacity by alternating between long, slow distance and faster-paced efforts. 3. Training Intensity Definitions: o Long Slow Distance (LSD): ▪ Used to build aerobic base (70% of VO2 Max). ▪ Focuses on mileage before speed; first focus on running longer distances, then gradually increase speed. o Pace Tempo:  ▪ Training at or slightly above lactate threshold (the point where lactate accumulation outpaces clearance). ▪ This is considered "race pace" training, where you push hard without accumulating lactate and fatiguing. o Interval Training: ▪ Alternating between periods of high intensity and rest. ▪ Work-to-rest ratios often range from 1:1 (e.g., 4 minutes work, 4 minutes rest) to 1:3 or 1:5 for high-intensity training. o High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): ▪ Short bursts of maximal effort (30-90 seconds) followed by long rest periods (1:5 work-to-rest ratio). ▪ mThis approach is used to develop power and strength and requires sufficient rest to allow full recovery between efforts. 4. Training for Different Sports: o Base Conditioning: ▪ Even in sports like football or basketball, aerobic conditioning is crucial. Base conditioning improves VO2 max, cardiac output, and enhances mitochondrial and capillary development, which can improve endurance and recovery during games. o Cross-Training: ▪ A method of training using different activities (e.g., cycling for runners, or swimming for cyclists) to reduce injury risk and provide variety while maintaining fitness. 5. Tapering: o Reducing training volume or intensity in preparation for a competition or peak performance (e.g., before a race or game). o Tapering allows the body to fully recover and perform at optimal levels during the event. 6. Periodization: o Linear Periodization:  ▪ A traditional model where training intensity gradually increases over time, often divided into off-season, pre-season, and in-season phases. ▪ Typically used for athletes with a general level of fitness (e.g., high school athletes). o Block Periodization: ▪ More advanced model where training is divided into "blocks" of specific focus, often used by professional athletes to focus on particular goals (e.g., strength, power, endurance) in distinct blocks of time. o Phases of Periodization: ▪ Postseason: Focus on rest and recovery. ▪ Off-season: Build base conditioning (aerobic fitness, strength, hypertrophy). ▪ Preseason: Focus on strength and power development. ▪ In-season: Maintain fitness and avoid overtraining, focus on skill development. ▪ Active Recovery: Incorporates lighter training loads to allow the body to adjust and recover before ramping up intensity again. 7. Training for Team Sports (e.g., Football, Basketball): o Even for non-endurance athletes (e.g., football players), developing a solid aerobic base can improve VO2 max, cardiac output, and recovery, which enhances overall performance during games and reduces fatigue over the course of a season. 8. Key Physiological Benefits of Aerobic Conditioning: o Improved VO2 max through increased stroke volume and cardiac output. o Increased mitochondrial density (which improves energy production at the cellular level). o Enhanced capillary networks for better oxygen delivery to muscles.  o These improvements allow athletes to perform at a higher level and recover more quickly, particularly in the later stages of a game or competition. Training Strategies and Applications For Marathon Runners: A highly specific training plan with a mix of long slow distance runs, interval training, and fartlek training to build both aerobic endurance and race-specific speed. For Team Sports Athletes (e.g., football, basketball): Integrating aerobic base training in the offseason helps improve endurance and recovery, contributing to better performance across the entire season. In-season training focuses more on interval training, strength, and power. Summary of Key Training Modalities: Fartlek Training: Alternating between long slow distance and tempo-paced running. Lactate Threshold Training: Running just below or at the lactate threshold to improve race pace endurance. Interval Training: Short, intense bursts of effort followed by rest periods. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): Maximal efforts with extended rest periods for power and speed development. Tapering: A reduction in training intensity or volume to peak performance for an event. Final Takeaways: Aerobic Base: Fundamental for all athletes, even in sports like football, basketball, and soccer. Periodization: Critical for developing long-term progress and avoiding burnout or overtraining. Cross-Training: A good method for maintaining fitness while reducing injury risk and training monotony. How to Calculate Percentages of Macronutrients 1. Calculations: o Calories from Carbs = grams of carbs × 4 kcal/g.  o Calories from Protein = grams of protein × 4 kcal/g. o Calories from Fat = grams of fat × 9 kcal/g. o Total Caloric Intake = sum of calories from carbohydrates, protein, and fat. 2. Importance in Strength and Conditioning: o Energy Distribution: Adjust macronutrient ratios for athletes with varying goals: ▪ Endurance athletes: Require higher carbohydrates for sustained energy. ▪ Muscle growth: Increased protein intake supports recovery and hypertrophy. ▪ Fat loss: Moderate carbs, higher protein, and careful fat intake to maintain energy and muscle mass. Fluid Replacement Post-Exercise 1. Guidelines for Fluid Replacement: o Weigh the athlete before and after exercise. o Weight Lost = Pre-exercise weight - Post-exercise weight. o Multiply weight lost by 1.5 to determine required fluid intake (liters). o Recommended Intake: 1.5 liters per kilogram of weight lost. 2. Steps: o Example: Athlete loses 2 kg during exercise: ▪ Fluid needed = 2 kg×1.5=3 liters2 \, \text{kg} \times 1.5 = 3 \, \text{liters}2kg×1.5=3liters. 3. Practical Considerations: o Include electrolytes for activities longer than 1 hour or high-intensity efforts. o Promote small, frequent sips for optimal absorption and comfort. Physiological Adaptations 1. Neural vs. Hypertrophic Adaptations: o Neural Adaptations: ▪ Increased motor unit recruitment. ▪ Improved firing rates and intermuscular coordination. ▪ Prominent in early training phases or with beginners (e.g., children). o Hypertrophic Adaptations: ▪ Muscle cross-sectional area increases. ▪ Stimulated by overload, high volume, and consistent training over weeks/months. Example: A 12-year-old builds strength primarily through neural efficiency, as hormonal changes limit hypertrophy. 2. Training-Specific Adaptations: o Endurance Training: Increases capillary density and mitochondrial efficiency. o Strength Training: Enlarges Type II fibers, boosting explosive power. Periodization 1. Phases of Periodization: o Hypertrophy/Endurance Phase: High volume, moderate intensity; builds muscle size and stamina. o Strength Phase: Moderate volume, higher intensity; focuses on force production. o Power Phase: Low volume, high intensity; develops speed and explosive power. 2. Program Structure: o Macrocycle: Long-term training plan (e.g., 1 year). o Mesocycle: Intermediate periods (e.g., 4-6 weeks for hypertrophy).  o Microcycle: Short-term training units (e.g., 1-week blocks). Energy Systems 1. Linking Energy Systems to Exercises: o ATP-PC System: Short bursts (0-10 sec), e.g., sprints, max lifts. o Glycolytic System: Moderate effort (30-120 sec), e.g., 400m run, HIIT. o Oxidative System: Long-duration efforts (>2 min), e.g., marathons, steady- state cardio. 2. Work:Rest Ratios: o ATP-PC: 1:12 to 1:20 (e.g., 10s work, 2 min rest). o Glycolytic: 1:3 to 1:5 (e.g., 30s work, 90s rest). o Oxidative: 1:1 to 1:3 (e.g., 5 min work, 5-10 min rest). Force Production 1. Key Biomechanical and Anatomical Factors: o Joint Angles: Optimize joint positioning for force (e.g., squat depth). o Muscle Activation: Efficient use of prime movers (e.g., glutes in hip extension). o Stretch-Shortening Cycle: Harness elastic energy for plyometric power. 2. Practical Applications: o Tailor mechanics (e.g., strengthen the deadlift to enhance the clean's first pull). Testing and Evaluation Sequence of Testing: 1. Non fatiguing 2. Agility  3. Max strength/ power 4. Sprint/speed 5. Local muscular endurance 6. Fatiguing anaerobic 7. Aerobic capacity test Order: Conduct tests from least to most fatiguing. 8. Specificity of Tests: o Tailor tests to the athlete's sport: ▪ Sprinters: 40-yard dash, vertical jump. ▪ Rowers: Wingate test, 1RM back squat. Heart rate calculations Estimated max 220-age Karvonen estimated (max- resting heart rate) x Intensity + resting heart rate