Introduction to Psychology Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What does maintenance rehearsal help achieve?

  • It enhances the encoding specificity.
  • It keeps items active in short-term memory. (correct)
  • It transfers information to long-term memory.
  • It prevents misinformation from entering memory.

What phenomenon explains why people might report seeing broken glass after hearing the word 'smashed'?

  • Primacy effect.
  • Misinformation effect. (correct)
  • Episodic memory.
  • Decaying memory.

Which type of rehearsal is focused on integrating meaning to enhance memory transfer?

  • Maintenance rehearsal.
  • Chunking.
  • Elaboration rehearsal. (correct)
  • State dependent recall.

What does the primacy-recency effect illustrate about memory retention?

<p>The beginning and end of a list are recalled better than the middle. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can chunking assist in memory retention?

<p>By grouping items into larger wholes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the illusory truth effect?

<p>Believing all repeated information is true. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does state dependent learning refer to?

<p>Recalling better in the same environmental context. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Zone of Proximal Development emphasize in a child's learning process?

<p>Tasks that a child can complete with the assistance of more competent peers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory does a child begin to develop the ability to think symbolically and logically?

<p>Pre-operational period (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process involves modifying new information to fit existing schemata?

<p>Assimilation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation of the concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory?

<p>Logical analysis only applies to physical objects (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the criticism of the general adaptation syndrome regarding stress?

<p>It overemphasizes the physiological response to stress (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is self-evaluation often based on?

<p>Comparing oneself to others (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to characteristics that heavily influence impression formation?

<p>Central traits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Asch configural model, how do people typically form impressions?

<p>By making holistic judgments based on specific information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a positive outcome of comparing test scores with others?

<p>Can make a lower score feel satisfying if it is one of the highest (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does stereotype suppression involve?

<p>Awareness of stereotypes and effort to reduce their influence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do people summarize large amounts of information about someone?

<p>Using central traits to create an overall impression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of self-evaluation?

<p>Feeling good about one's performance after a sports match (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus when making holistic judgments about others?

<p>Overall context of the person's behavior and traits (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might one feel after realizing they were the second highest scorer in a test despite the high scores being low?

<p>Satisfied with their relative performance compared to others (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the actor-observer effect?

<p>Actors perceive their behavior as influenced by the situation while observers attribute behavior to personal dispositions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the fundamental attribution error refer to?

<p>The tendency to consider behavior as stemming from innate properties of individuals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about heuristics is true?

<p>Heuristics simplify decision-making by using past experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the representativeness heuristic?

<p>Judging the likelihood of an event based on its similarity to typical cases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive bias describes the tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs and behaviors?

<p>False consensus effect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the conjunction fallacy?

<p>Assuming that the probability of two independent events happening together is higher than that of either occurring alone. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the availability heuristic?

<p>Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Jones and Harris study, what was measured to determine the participants' perceptions of the essay writer?

<p>How pro-Castro they believed the writer was. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do cognitive shortcuts affect decision-making?

<p>They allow for quicker decisions at the cost of accuracy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What influences the consistency of attitudes with behavior according to the content?

<p>Knowledge and personal relevance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the amygdala in emotional responses?

<p>To express conditioned emotional responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the mere exposure effect?

<p>Increased preference for neutral stimuli with repeated exposure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome is typically associated with cognitive dissonance?

<p>Unpleasant tension from conflicting attitudes and behaviors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Schachter and Singer two-factor theory describe the relationship between emotions and physiological responses?

<p>Emotions are influenced by physiological responses and cognitive appraisals (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of the 'door in the face' technique in compliance?

<p>Making a large request followed by a smaller request (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of emotions, what is the role of the orbitofrontal cortex?

<p>To inhibit impulsive behaviors and regulate social emotions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the foot-in-the-door technique rely on?

<p>Starting with a small request to build commitment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What knowledge can lead to higher attitude-behavior consistency?

<p>Firsthand knowledge and deep understanding (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was demonstrated in the Asch conformity study?

<p>People conform to majority opinion even on obvious tasks (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Memory Decay

The tendency for information to be lost or forgotten over time, much like physical objects rust.

Memory Displacement

New information can displace older information from short-term memory, much like adding items to a crowded box can push out existing ones.

Maintenance Rehearsal

A type of rehearsal that involves repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory.

Elaboration Rehearsal

A deeper level of processing that involves understanding and elaborating on information, leading to better retention in long-term memory.

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Primacy-Recency Effect

The phenomenon where we are better at remembering information presented at the beginning and end of a list.

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Encoding Specificity

The principle that retrieval of memories is influenced by the cues present during encoding.

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State-Dependent Learning

Information learned in a particular internal state (e.g., mood, location) is better remembered when in that same state again.

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Asch Configural Model

The tendency to make overall judgments about a person based on specific traits, rather than simply adding up all the information.

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Central Traits

The characteristics that have a disproportionate impact on our overall impression of someone.

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Social Comparison

The process of evaluating our own qualities and abilities by comparing ourselves to others.

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Stereotyping

The process of automatically assigning characteristics to others based on group memberships.

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Stereotype Suppression

The strategy of consciously trying to avoid using stereotypes to judge others.

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Self-Evaluation

The process of evaluating ourselves based on our own internal standards and values.

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Social Referencing

The tendency to evaluate the quality of our own experiences based on the experiences of others.

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Gestalt Impression Formation

The general idea that our impressions of others aren't merely a sum of their individual traits, but rather a complex, holistic judgment.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

The tendency to act in ways that are consistent with our self-perception and the expectations of others.

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Heuristics

A type of cognitive shortcut that involves using past experiences to make quick judgments, even if they aren't always accurate.

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False Consensus

The tendency to think that our own behavior is common and that our views are shared by many others.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

When we underestimate the influence of situational factors on others' behavior and overestimate the influence of their personality traits.

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Representativeness Heuristic

This heuristic helps us classify something as belonging to a certain category based on its similarity to a prototype we hold in our mind.

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Actor-Observer Effect

This effect underscores our bias in interpreting information based on whether we are the actor or the observer.

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Conjunction Fallacy

The probability of two sets occurring together is never greater than the probability of either set occurring independently.

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Availability Heuristic

This heuristic estimates the likelihood of an event based on how easily we can recall similar events.

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Schema

Mental models or frameworks that represent categories or behaviors. They help us understand and interact with the world.

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Assimilation

The process of modifying new information to fit into existing schemas.

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Accommodation

The process of creating new schemas or modifying existing ones to accommodate new information.

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks a child can perform with the help of a more skilled individual.

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Scaffolding

Providing appropriate support to a learner to help them achieve a task.

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Bystander Effect

The tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help in an emergency situation if there are other onlookers present.

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Social Loafing

A type of motivation loss in group settings where individual effort declines because individual contributions are not identifiable.

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Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

The theory stating that our feelings are determined by (1) our physiological arousal and (2) our interpretation of that arousal.

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Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The hypothesis that our facial expressions influence our feelings. For example, smiling can make us feel happier.

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Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they're being observed by others.

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Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A technique used to build commitment. It involves asking for a small request, then following up with a larger, related request.

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Prejudice

A shared attitude or feeling towards a social outgroup and its members, based solely on their group membership.

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Contact Hypothesis

A principle suggesting that contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice. It's a path towards greater understanding and acceptance.

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Compliance

The idea that we change our behavior in response to a direct request from another person.

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Norm of Reciprocity

The rule that obligates us to pay others back for favors or gifts they have given us.

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Study Notes

Early Psychology

  • Cartesian Dualism: separation of mind and body
  • Malevolent demon: a controlling force influencing senses
  • Brain in a vat: a thought experiment questioning the nature of reality.

Perspectives in Psychology

  • Behaviourism: scientific study of observable behaviours
    • Pavlov's dogs: classical conditioning
    • Skinner: operant conditioning
  • Psychodynamic: unconscious motives driving behaviour
    • Freud and Jung
    • Id, Ego, Superego
    • Psychosexual stages
  • Humanistic: emphasis on individual needs and free will
    • Rogers and Maslow
    • Client-centered therapy
    • Hierarchy of needs
  • Cognitive: study of mental processes
    • Memory research: Ebbinghaus
  • Evolutionary: behaviour influenced by genes
    • Darwin, Dawkins, Wilson
  • Biological: physical causes of behaviour
    • Brain and Nervous system
    • Cognitive neuroscience

Science of Psychology

  • Evolutionary approach: behaviour influenced by genes and reproduction
  • Biological approach: behaviour is traceable to physical causes. The brain and nervous system influence behaviour.
  • Cognitive Neuroscience how the brain influences behaviour.
  • Broca's area: Brain area associated with speech production.
  • Wernicke's area: Brain area associated with speech comprehension.

Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation: initial process of receiving stimulus energy from the environment
  • Perception: interpretation stage where higher-level thinking and existing knowledge affect sensation interpretation,
  • Sensory modalities: touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell
  • Thresholds: absolute vs. difference
  • Webers law: the relationship between stimulus change and our ability to detect that change
  • Hearing: pitch (frequency), volume (amplitude), timbre (complexity)
  • Touch: temperature, pressure, pain
    • pain pathways with neurotransmitters: substance P produces pain, endorphins decrease it
  • Taste: taste buds, interact with olfaction
  • Smell: olfactory sense, links to taste
  • Sight: electromagnetic spectrum, light waves, rods (dim light), cones (color)

Visual Perception

  • Depth perception: judging distance.
  • Binocular depth cues: require both eyes
    • Convergence
    • Retinal disparity
  • Monocular depth cues: using one eye
    • Relative size
    • Interposition
    • Linear perspective
    • Texture gradient
    • Aerial perspective
  • Perceptual constancy: perception remains relatively constant despite changes in sensory input.
  • Visual illusions: such as the Müller-Lyer or Ponzo illusions reveal how perceptual systems interpret information.
  • Motion Perception: analysing how background objects move relative to each other.
  • Phi Phenomenon: apparent motion created by successive still images.

Memory

  • Stages of Memory: Acquisition (encoding), Retention and Retrieval
  • Sensory memory: stores initial sensory information briefly
  • Short-term memory (STM): processes current information, has a limited capacity
  • Long-term memory (LTM): stores information for extended periods, less limited capacity
  • Multi-store model of memory: conceptualizes memory as separate stores.
  • Encoding Specificity: retrieval enhanced if conditions matching encoding
  • Primacy and recency effects: better recall for beginning and end of a list
  • Levels of processing: deep processing leads to better memory
  • Memory Tasks: recall, recognition, relearning.
  • Types of Memory
  • Episodic memory: specific events in a person's life
  • Semantic memory: general knowledge, not linked to a particular context

Social Psychology

  • Social Cognition: Mental processes in perceiving, interpreting and responding to social information.
  • Attribution: Explanations of causes of behaviour (internal/external)
  • Fundamental Attribution Error: tendency to attribute behaviour to internal factors rather than external factors.
  • Priming: prior experience affecting how one responds to a current situation
  • Schemas: mental frameworks structuring social information.
  • Attitudes: evaluations of objects, people etc
  • Consistency bias: the tendency to think our opinions don't change.
  • Social Influence: compliance, obedience, and conformity
  • Compliance: changing behaviours in response to a request
  • Obedience: changing behaviours in reaction to authoritative figures
  • Conformity: changing behaviours to match those of others.
  • Bystander effect: reduced likelihood of help in the presence of others.
  • Social Facilitation & Inhibition: how the presence of others affects performance, depending on the task

Health Psychology

  • Stress: physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural response to perceived threats.
  • Stressors: events or circumstances challenging well-being
  • General adaptation syndrome (GAS): stages of physiological response to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion)
  • Cognitive appraisal: interpreting the meaning of a situation influencing stress response.
  • Coping: strategies for managing stress
  • Problem-focused coping: addressing the source of the stress
  • Emotion-focused coping: managing emotional reactions

Developmental Psychology

  • Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:
  • Sensorimotor (0-2 years): object permanence, deferred imitation
  • Preoperational (2-7 years): symbolic thinking, egocentrism
  • Concrete Operational (7-11 years): logical reasoning, conservation
  • Formal Operational (11+ years): abstract thought
  • Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: social interaction vital for cognitive development
  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): range of tasks a child can accomplish with guidance
  • Scaffolding: supporting a child to master a task.

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Intro To Psych PDF

Description

This quiz explores foundational concepts in psychology, including Cartesian dualism and various perspectives such as behaviorism, psychodynamics, and humanistic psychology. Test your knowledge on influential theories and key figures that have shaped the science of psychology.

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