Introduction to Psychology: Biological Bases of Behavior

Introduction to Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
• It encompasses a broad range of topics, including perception, cognition, emotion, motivation, and social behavior.
• The field is characterized by diverse perspectives, such as biological, cognitive, behavioral, psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches.

Biological Bases of Behavior

• The nervous system is a complex network of neurons that transmit information throughout the body.
• Neurons communicate with each other through electrochemical signals, called neurotransmitters.
• Key neurotransmitters—such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine—have been linked to various psychological processes.
• The brain is responsible for higher cognitive functions, like language, memory, and decision-making. Different brain regions have specialized functions.
• The endocrine system, involving hormones, interacts with the nervous system to regulate behavior and emotions.
• Genetic factors play a significant role in shaping individual differences in behavior and psychological traits.
• Evolutionary psychology explores how natural selection shapes human behavior.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation is the process of detecting physical stimuli from our environment.
• Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.
• Sensory receptors convert physical stimuli into neural signals.
• Sensory thresholds determine the minimum amount of stimulus needed to be detected.
• Absolute threshold refers to the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
• Difference threshold, or just noticeable difference, refers to the minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
• Perception involves various organizing principles, such as grouping and figure-ground.
• Perception can be influenced by top-down processing (using background knowledge) and bottom-up processing (sensing environmental stimuli).
• Sensory adaptation is the diminished sensitivity to constant stimulation over time.
• Vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch are distinct sensory systems that provide information about the world.

States of Consciousness

• Consciousness refers to our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
• Levels of consciousness range from alertness to sleep.
• Stages of sleep are characterized by distinct brain wave patterns.
• Dreaming occurs during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.
• Altered states of consciousness may be induced by drugs, meditation, or hypnosis.
• Sleep deprivation can negatively impact cognitive performance, mood, and physical health.

Learning

• Learning is a relatively lasting change in behavior that results from experience.
• Classical conditioning involves associating two stimuli to elicit a response.
• Operant conditioning involves associating a behavior with consequences.
• Observational learning involves learning by observing and imitating others.
• Reinforcement strengthens a behavior, while punishment weakens it. Different schedules of reinforcement affect learning rates.
• Cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, play a crucial role in learning.

Memory

• Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Different types of memory exist, including sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
• Encoding strategies improve memory.
• Retrieval cues can aid in recalling information.
• Forgetting is a complex process, and issues with memory can be impacted by various factors.
• Various memory models explain how memory works.

Cognition

• Cognition encompasses mental processes such as thinking, knowing, remembering, and problem-solving.
• Concepts are mental representations that group similar objects, events, or ideas.
• Problem-solving involves using mental processes to find solutions to difficulties.
• Decision-making involves choosing among different options. Factors influence decision-making.
• Language is a system of communication using symbols. Language development is crucial.

Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation refers to the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior.
• Motivation can be intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external).
• Emotions are complex psychological states involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and behavioral expressions.
• Various theories explain the nature and function of emotions.
• Motivation and emotion are intertwined; needs and drives affect emotions and vice versa.

Development Across the Lifespan

• Development encompasses physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes throughout the lifespan.
• Prenatal development involves significant changes.
• Childhood development covers unique stages and significant milestones.
• Adolescence is a period of significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial change.
• Adulthood encompasses various stages with unique challenges and transitions.
• Aging involves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes, and the associated challenges and opportunities.

Social Psychology

• Social psychology examines how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations.
• Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas.
• Social cognition involves how individuals think about and perceive others.
• Social influence explores how others' presence affects attitudes and behaviors (e.g., conformity, obedience).
• Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination are social issues that affect interactions.
• Interpersonal attraction involves factors that make us drawn to others.

Explore the basics of psychology, including the study of the mind, behavior and diverse perspectives. Learn about the nervous system, neurons, neurotransmitters, and the brain's role in shaping behavior. The relationship between genetics and psychology.