Introduction to Oxidative Phosphorylation
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Introduction to Oxidative Phosphorylation

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of complex IV in the electron transport chain?

  • Facilitates the transfer of electrons to molecular oxygen (correct)
  • Inhibits the reduction of Coenzyme Q
  • Pumps protons into the mitochondrial matrix
  • Transfers electrons from NADH to the electron transport chain

    • How many protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane by complex III for every two electrons transferred?

  • 4 protons (correct)
  • 10 protons
  • 2 protons
  • 6 protons

    • Which compound serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

  • NADH
  • Coenzyme Q
  • FADH₂
  • Molecular oxygen (correct)

    • What is a common inhibitor of complex II in the electron transport chain?

    <p>Malonate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is directly driven by the energy released during electron transfer in the electron transport chain?

    <p>Proton pumping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many electrons are required to fully reduce one molecule of oxygen at complex IV?

    <p>4 electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following inhibitors affects the transfer of electrons from cytochrome b to Coenzyme Q?

    <p>Antimycin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>To generate approximately 26-28 ATP molecules per glucose molecule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the electron transfer process when electrons are shuttled to complex IV?

    <p>Water is formed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What catalyzes the synthesis of ATP during chemiosmosis?

    <p>ATP synthase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During oxidative phosphorylation, where do electrons travel after being donated by NADH and FADH₂?

    <p>Through four protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to protons as they are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>They create a proton gradient or proton motive force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of the final electron acceptance in oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Reduction of molecular oxygen to form water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is formed as a result of the proton gradient during chemiosmosis?

    <p>Chemical energy stored in ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does oxidative phosphorylation play in cellular respiration?

    <p>It integrates the process by utilizing oxygen as the final electron acceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ATP levels influence in terms of cellular processes?

    <p>Various biochemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the inner mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>Formation of the proton gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cofactors are involved in the catalytic activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase?

    <p>Thiamin pyrophosphate, lipoamide, flavin adenine dinucleotide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the overall products resulting from one cycle of the TCA cycle per acetyl-CoA?

    <p>Two CO2, three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP/ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is NOT part of the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria?

    <p>Acetyl-CoA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does oxidative phosphorylation primarily generate ATP?

    <p>Utilization of energy from electron transport chain to create a proton gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the intermembrane space play in cellular respiration?

    <p>Creation of the proton gradient essential for ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein complex in the electron transport chain directly transfers electrons to oxygen?

    <p>Complex IV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process is responsible for creating a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>Electron movement through protein complexes in the ETC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily created by the movement of H+ ions during chemiosmosis?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of ATP synthase is primarily responsible for forming a channel for protons?

    <p>C subunits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the proton motive force established in the inner mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>By active transport of protons during electron transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During oxidative phosphorylation, what roles does chemiosmosis serve?

    <p>Maintains membrane potential and regulates metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What drives the flow of protons through the ATP synthase during ATP production?

    <p>Proton gradient and electrochemical potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily constitutes the components of proton motive force?

    <p>Differences in H+ concentration and charge across the membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the function of the F1 component of ATP synthase?

    <p>It catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which complex in the electron transport chain is NOT involved in the active transport of protons?

    <p>Complex II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the primary function of uncoupling proteins (UCPs)?

    <p>To modulate energy metabolism and reduce oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of proton leakage caused by uncouplers in oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Dissipation of the proton gradient leading to reduced ATP synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which uncoupling protein is primarily associated with heat generation?

    <p>UCP1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of mitochondrial function, what is the effect of increased oxygen consumption when uncouplers are present?

    <p>Increased metabolic activity as cells try to maintain proton gradients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition can result from defects in the electron transport chain (ETC)?

    <p>Impaired ATP production and potential oxidative damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of uncoupler action in the mitochondrial membrane?

    <p>Increases the efficiency of ATP production in the mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical is known for its effect as a potent uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Carbonyl Cyanide m-Chlorophenyl Hydrazone (CCCP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which uncoupling protein is associated with various tissues, including the brain and pancreas?

    <p>UCP2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the immediate consequence of uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Dissipation of the proton motive force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following effects is associated with the action of uncouplers?

    <p>Collapse of proton gradient and increased oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ATP synthesis is catalyzed by the enzyme ______.

    <p>ATP synthase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the electron transport chain during ______.

    <p>oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pumping of protons creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial ______.

    <p>membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen (O₂) at Complex ______, forming water as a byproduct.

    <p>IV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary role of oxidative phosphorylation is to generate approximately ______ ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

    <p>26-28</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis, protons flow back into the matrix through ______.

    <p>ATP synthase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemiosmosis establishes a ______ potential, driving ATP synthesis.

    <p>chemiosmotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Energy from reduced cofactors (NADH and FADH₂) is converted into chemical energy stored in ______.

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemiosmosis involves the movement of ions across a ______ membrane bound structure.

    <p>semipermeable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotes, chemiosmosis occurs in the inner ______ membrane.

    <p>mitochondrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The proton motive force refers to the electrochemical gradient of ______ across a biological membrane.

    <p>protons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ATP synthase is responsible for ATP production using energy from the proton ______ force.

    <p>motive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The F₀ component of ATP synthase forms a ______ for protons to flow back into the mitochondrial matrix.

    <p>channel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of creating a proton gradient begins with the transfer of ______ through the electron transport chain.

    <p>electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase driven by ______ and electrochemical potential.

    <p>gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The active transport of protons occurs at complexes I, III, and ______ in the electron transport chain.

    <p>IV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex IV receives electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to ______

    <p>molecular oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The transfer of electrons to oxygen leads to the formation of ______

    <p>water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to ______ in the electron transport chain.

    <p>Complex I and Complex II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex I pumps ______ protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Antimycin inhibits the transfer of electrons from cytochrome ______ to Coenzyme Q.

    <p>b</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The final electron acceptor, oxygen, requires ______ electrons to reduce one O₂ molecule.

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cyanide and azide are inhibitors of ______ in the electron transport chain.

    <p>Complex IV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The electron transfer process drives the pumping of protons across the ______ mitochondrial membrane.

    <p>inner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The influx of protons causes the c-ring in the F₀ component to ______

    <p>rotate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The rotational energy induces conformational changes in the F₁ component, facilitating the binding of ______ and inorganic phosphate (Pi)

    <p>ADP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The P/O ratio measures the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis in ______

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each NADH donates two electrons to the ETC, resulting in about ______ ATP per oxygen atom

    <p>2.5 to 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    From one molecule of glucose, the total reaction yields about ______ ATPs.

    <p>30-32</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During glycolysis, substrate-level phosphorylation produces ______ ATP.

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the TCA cycle, ______ NADH yields 15 ATP.

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis must be transported into the mitochondria using the ______ shuttle systems.

    <p>Glycerol-Phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotes, ETC takes place in the inner membrane of ______.

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ETC serves as electron carriers in the final stage of cellular ______.

    <p>respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex I is also known as ______ dehydrogenase.

    <p>NADH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex II is known as succinate-coenzyme Q ______.

    <p>reductase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The proton gradient created during the electron transport chain is used to drive ______ formation.

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex III is also known as cytochrome ______ complex.

    <p>bc1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex IV catalyzes the transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to molecular ______.

    <p>oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the Q cycle in Complex III, one of the outcomes is the release of two ______ into the intermembrane space.

    <p>protons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrons from FADH2 enter the electron transport chain through ______.

    <p>Complex II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex I transfers electrons to ______, converting it into CoQH2.

    <p>Coenzyme Q</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex II has a parallel electron transport pathway to Complex ______.

    <p>I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytochrome ______ is reduced during the electron transfer from Complex III.

    <p>c</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The composition of Complex IV includes cytochrome a, cytochrome a3, and two ______ centers.

    <p>copper</p> Signup and view all the answers

    NADH collects the pair of electrons from ______ and passes them to ubiquinone.

    <p>NAD+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • Process of ATP production using the energy from the electron transport chain and proton gradient.
    • Involves oxidation and phosphorylation events.
    • Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

    Electron Transport Chain

    • Series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
    • Transfers electrons from electron carriers (NADH and FADH₂) to oxygen.
    • Energy released from electron transfer is used to pump protons (H⁺) from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.
    • Four main protein complexes : I, II, III, IV.
    • Mobile carriers : Coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) and cytochrome c.
    • Complex I : Pumps 4 protons (H⁺).
    • Complex III: Pumps 4 protons (H⁺).
    • Complex IV: Pumps 2 protons (H⁺).

    Chemiosmosis

    • Movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane down the electrochemical gradient.
    • Proton gradient established by the ETC drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase.

    Proton Motive Force (PMF)

    • Electrochemical gradient of protons (H⁺ ions) across a biological membrane.
    • Components: difference in H⁺ concentration and difference in charge.
    • Drives ATP synthesis.

    ATP Synthase

    • Multi-subunit enzyme complex responsible for ATP production using the energy from the proton motive force.
    • F₀ component: Embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, forms a channel for protons to flow back into the matrix.
    • F₁ component: Projects into the mitochondrial matrix, catalyzes the conversion of ADP and inorganic phosphate into ATP.

    Mechanism of ATP Synthesis

    • Protons flow back into the matrix through the F₀ component of ATP synthase, driven by the gradient and electrochemical potential.
    • This flow drives the production of ATP by the F₁ component.

    Uncouplers of Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • Substances that disrupt the coupling between the ETC and ATP synthesis.
    • Cause protons to flow back into the mitochondrial matrix independently of ATP synthase.
    • Examples: 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) and Carbonyl Cyanide m-Chlorophenyl Hydrazone (CCCP).
    • Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are regulated proton channels or transporters found in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
    • They play important roles in energy metabolism and thermogenesis.

    Uncoupling Proteins

    • Function: Modulate energy metabolism, insulin secretion, reduce oxidative stress, and protect against oxidative damage.
    • Location: Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT), brain, skeletal muscle, and pancreas.

    Oxidative Phosphorylation Disorder

    • Genetic or acquired defects in the ETC impair ATP production.
    • Caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA or nuclear DNA affecting ETC complexes.

    Electron Transport Chain Inhibitors

    • Inhibitors that stop the transfer of electrons in the ETC, leading to decreased ATP production.
    • Examples: Rotenone, Amytal, Halothanes, Carbon monoxide (CO), cyanide (CN-), and azide (N3-).

    Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • Process of Oxidative Phosphorylation:
      • Electron Donation: NADH and FADH₂ generated from glycolysis and the TCA cycle donate electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC).
      • Electron Transport: Electrons travel through four protein complexes (I-IV) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
      • Proton Gradient Creation: The pumping of protons creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, establishing a chemiosmotic potential (proton motive force).
      • ATP Synthesis via Chemiosmosis: Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase. The flow drives the production of ATP.
      • Final Electron Acceptance: Electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen (O₂) at Complex IV, forming water (H₂O) as a byproduct.

    Function of Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • ATP Production: Primary role is to generate approximately 26-28 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, providing energy for cellular processes.
    • Energy Conversion: Converts energy from reduced cofactors (NADH and FADH₂) into chemical energy stored in ATP.
    • Cellular Respiration Integration: Completes the process of cellular respiration by utilizing oxygen as the final electron acceptor, producing water.
    • Metabolic Regulation: Regulates key metabolic pathways by responding to changes in cellular energy demands; ATP levels influence various biochemical reactions.
    • Heat Generation: Some energy is dissipated as heat, aiding in thermoregulation and maintaining body temperature in humans.

    Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

    • Overview: A series of proteins that transfer electrons through a membrane within mitochondria to form a gradient of protons that drives the creation of ATP.
    • Location: In eukaryotes, ETC takes place in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Protons are transported from the matrix to the intermembrane space across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
    • Role in Cellular Respiration: ETC serves as electron carriers in the final stage of cellular respiration. ETC generates proton gradients for chemiosmosis (ATP synthesis).

    Components of the ETC

    • Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase):
      • also known as NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase; accepts electrons from NADH and passes them to ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q).
      • Composition: NADH dehydrogenase, flavin mononucleotide (FMN), iron-sulfur clusters (Fe-S)
      • Reaction: NADH + H+ + CoQ + 4H+in→ NAD+ + CoQH2 + 4H+out
    • Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase):
      • Also known as succinate-coenzyme Q reductase; the only enzyme that participates in both the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.
      • Composition: succinate dehydrogenase (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur (Fe-S) subunit mitochondrial (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C (SDHC); and succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit D (SDHD)
      • Function: Catalyzes the transfer of electrons from other donors like fatty acids and glycerol-3 phosphate to coenzyme Q.
      • Reaction: Succinate + FADH2 + CoQ → Fumarate + FAD+ + CoQH2
    • Complex III (Coenzyme Q: cytochrome c – oxidoreductase):
      • Also known as cytochrome bc1 complex.
      • Composition: cytochrome b, cytochrome c and a specific Fe-S center.
      • Catalyzes the transfer of electrons from the reduced coenzyme Q to cytochrome c for transport to Complex IV.
      • Uses energy released to pump more protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
      • Reaction: CoQH2 + 2 cytochrome c (Fe3+) → CoQ + 2 cytochrome c (Fe2+) + 4H+
    • Complex IV (Cytochrome c Oxidase):
      • Last enzyme in ETC.
      • Composition: cytochrome a, cytochrome a3, and two copper centers, the CuA and CuB centers.
      • Catalyzes the transfer of two electrons from cytochrome c to molecular oxygen (O2), reducing it to water.
      • Electrons travel from the intermembrane space side to the mitochondrial matrix side, against the charge gradient.
      • Reaction: 4 cytc c (Fe 2+) + O2+ 4H+ → 4 cytc c (Fe3+) + 2H2O

    Electron Transport Chain Steps

    1. Transfer of electrons from NADH to Coenzyme Q: NADH, produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, donates electrons to complex I. Complex I transfers the electrons to Coenzyme Q while pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.
    2. Transfer of electrons from FADH2 to Coenzyme Q: The oxidation of succinate to fumarate results in the reduction of FAD to FADH2. The electrons from FADH2 enter the electron transport chain catalyzed by complex II. Complex II doesn’t pump any protons across the membrane.
    3. Transfer of electrons from CoQH2 to cytochrome c: Complex III receives electrons from Coenzyme Q and transfers them to cytochrome c. As electrons are transferred in complex III, protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Cytochrome c accepts electrons from complex III and shuttles them to complex IV.
    4. Transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to molecular oxygen: Complex IV receives electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to molecular oxygen (O2). The transfer of electrons to oxygen leads to the formation of water (H2O). Complex IV also pumps protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

    Summary of Electron Transport Chain

    • Electron Transfer: NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons:
      • NADH → Complex I (two electrons transfer)
      • FADH₂ → Complex II (two electrons transfer)
    • Proton Pumps: Energy from electron transfer drives proton pumping:
      • Complex I: Pumps 4 protons (H⁺)
      • Complex III: Pumps 4 protons (H⁺)
      • Complex IV: Pumps 2 protons (H⁺)
    • Role of Oxygen: Final Electron Acceptor:
      • Oxygen is reduced at Complex IV.
      • Accepts 2 electrons and combines with protons to form water (H₂O).
      • Requires 4 electrons to reduce 1 O₂ molecule.

    Electron Transport Chain Inhibitors

    • Complex I inhibitors:
      • Rotenone: Inhibits the reduction of Coenzyme Q.
      • Amytal and Halothanes: Inhibits the transfer of electrons from the Fe-S centers to Coenzyme Q.
    • Complex II inhibitors:
      • Competitive inhibitors with the substrate succinate.
      • Examples: carboxin, thenoyltrifluoroacetone and malonate.
    • Complex III inhibitors: (antibiotics)
      • Antimycin: Inhibits the transfer of electrons from cytochrome b to Coenzyme Q.
      • Myxothiazol and stigmatellin: Inhibits the transfer of electrons from reduced form of Coenzyme Q to cytochrome c.
    • Complex IV inhibitors:
      • Cyanide (CN-) and azide (N3-): block the transfer of electrons from cytochrome a to CuA center.
      • Carbon monoxide (CO): binds to the reduced form of cytochrome a3, and prevents electron transfer to O2.

    Chemiosmosis

    • Definition: The movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane bound structure, down their electrochemical gradient.
      • This process is important in the formation of ATP by the movement of H+ across a membrane during cellular respiration.
    • Location: In eukaryotes, chemiosmosis occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Protons are pumped into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase.
    • Role in Cellular Respiration: Chemiosmosis plays a crucial role in oxidative phosphorylation by enabling ATP production.
      • It assists in establishing a proton gradient, converting energy, regulating metabolism, maintaining membrane potential, and facilitating transport processes.

    Proton Motive Force (PMF)

    • Definition: The electrochemical gradient of protons (H⁺ ions) across a biological membrane, primarily the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes.
    • Components: Difference in H⁺ concentration (more H⁺ outside than inside). Difference in charge (more positive outside due to H⁺ accumulation).
    • Formation: Active transport of protons by complexes I, III, and IV in the ETC.
    • Function: Drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase.

    ATP Synthase

    • Definition: A multi-subunit enzyme complex responsible for ATP production using the energy from the proton motive force.
    • Structure:
      • F₀ Component: Embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Forms a channel for protons (H⁺) to flow back into the matrix, driven by proton motive force. Composed of a ring of c-subunits that rotate upon proton passage
      • F₁ Component: Projects into the mitochondrial matrix. Catalyzes the conversion of ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP. Contains three α and three β subunits that form the catalytic sites.

    Mechanism of ATP Synthesis

    1. Proton Gradient Formation: Electrons are transferred through the electron transport chain (ETC). Protons (H⁺) are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.
    2. Proton Flow through ATP Synthase: Protons flow back into the matrix through the F₀ component of ATP synthase. This flow is driven by the gradient and electrochemical potential.
    3. Rotation of F₀: The influx of protons causes the c-ring in the F₀ component to rotate. This mechanical energy is transmitted to the F₁ component.
    4. ATP Formation: The rotational energy induces conformational changes in the F₁ component, facilitating the binding of ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This leads to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.

    P/O Ratio and ATP Production

    • Definition: The P/O ratio (phosphate to oxygen ratio) is a measure of the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthesis in mitochondria.
      • The P/O ratio indicates the number of ATP molecules produced during the transfer of two electrons in the ETC, terminated by reduction of one oxygen atom.
    • Typical P/O Ratio:
      • From NADH: Each NADH donates two electrons to the ETC, 10 protons (H+) pumped. Typically yielding about 2.5 to 3 ATP per oxygen atom.
      • From FADH2: Each FADH₂ donates two electrons to the ETC, 6 protons (H+) pumped. Typically yields about 1.5 to 2 ATP per oxygen atom.

    ATP Yield

    • Total Electron Carriers: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 30-32 ATP
      • 10 NADH
      • 2 FADH₂
      • Assuming 2.5 ATP per NADH, 1.5 ATP per FADH2
    • ATP Yield:
      • Glycolysis: 2 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation. 2 NADH yields 3 ATP or 5 ATP.
      • Pyruvate Oxidation (Two Pyruvates): 2 NADH yields 5 ATP.
      • TCA Cycle (Two Acetyl-CoA):
        • 6 NADH yields 15 ATP
        • 2 FADH₂ yields 3 ATP
        • 2 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation
      • Total: 30 or 32 ATP

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