Introduction to General Psychology

• This module introduces the concept of general psychology
• Students should be able to define psychology, state its different schools and branches and identify the benefits of psychology to mankind

Meaning and Definition of Psychology

• General psychology is a branch of psychology
• Psychology originates from the Greek words "psyche" (mind) and "logos" (study)
• Psychology is the science of the mind/mental processes and the study of mental processes
• Early psychology was a Christian study of the soul
• Psychology uses systematic observation, measurement, experiments, and hypothesis formulation to arrive at factual conclusions
• Psychology focuses on understanding thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, with applications in mental health treatment, performance enhancement, and self-help
• The definition remains valid irrespective of controversies surrounding the mind's processes
• Humans engage in purposeful activities, and environmental influences may make psychology a discipline studying consciousness or immediate experiences
• Psychology involves the origin, development, and status as a scientific discipline

Origins of Psychology

• Psychology originates from the Greeks and influenced by philosophical, physiological, structural, and functional thinkers
• Dualism originated in the 17th century from Descartes
• Dualism says the body and mind interact to form human experience and leads to separation from philosophy
• Psychology emerged as a separate discipline in the mid-1800s, using scientific methods to study human thoughts and behavior
• In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established a laboratory in Leipzig to that effect
• It established psychology as a distinct field from philosophy and led to a focus on internal mental processes and the term "introspection" in psychology
• Introspection paved the way for experimental studies
• Wundt influenced Edwards Titchener, the father of Structuralism, and leading to emergence of various psychology schools in Germany and the United States of America

Table 1: Origin of Psychology

• Philosophical & Physiological Perspective mainly focused on the distinction between nature and nurture , free will in life, and development
• Role of nature and nurture in life and development
• Plato (428-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• Structuralism Perspective proposed that Structures/elements of mind (Wilhelm Wundt) analysed the basic elements of the mind and applied the psychological experience through introspection
• Elements of structuralism focus on psychological experience, classification, and introspection Titchener (1867–1927)
• Functionalism Perspective focused on function/usefulness; influenced by Darwin's natural selection theory aimed to understand why animals and humans developed specific psychological aspects and physical characteristics
• The function of the mind, rather than a description of its elements
• William James (1809-1882)
• The Psychodynamic Perspective (Sigmund Freud) based on psychoanalysis focuses on early childhood experiences and unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and suggested that an individual's worldview is influenced by family and experiences to determine behaviour
• Thoughts, feelings, and memories, and early childhood experiences determine behaviour (Alfred Adler)
• Freud (1856–1939), Carl Jung and Karen Horney

Behaviourism vs Biological

• Behaviourism Perspective: the study of behaviour, could be learned, predicted, and studied through stimuli, response, conditioning, and modelling based on the idea that you cannot objectively study mind
• It is not possible to objectively study the mind, therefore psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behaviour
• John B. Watson and Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner
• Biological Perspective: posits that human and animal behaviour is influenced by biology (genetics, neurotransmitters and hormones) for analysis of nervous system's fuctions
• The role of biology is to determine genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones and the brain.
• Michael Gazzaniga

Humanistic, Cognitive and Socio-cultural

• Humanistic Perspective: emphasizes self-concept, self-esteem, self-actualization, and free will
• Emphasizes each individual’s potential for personal growth. (Carl Rogers)
• Cognitive Perspective: argues that thinking influences behavior, with perception, thinking, memory and judgments as core mechanisms
• The study of mental processes: Fritz Heider
• Hermann Ebbinghaus Socio-cultural Perspective: suggests that social situations and cultures influences people's behaviours
• Stanley Schachter
• Evolutionary: Focuses on adaptation and survival as the David basis of behaviour

Sub-disciplines of Psychology

• Developmental Psychology examines the stability and evolution of thought and behavior in humans and animals over their lifespan
• Personality Psychology explores the distinctiveness and similarities of individuals, , aiming to understand their differences and similarities with others
• Social Psychology the study examines how the presence of others, whether real or imagined, influences thoughts, feelings and behaviour
• Clinical Psychology: studies psychological disorders are studied, diagnosed, and treated by psychologists, which focuses on prevention and improvement
• Educational Psychology studies psychology's influence on teaching and learning in schools and examines techniques learning styles etc
• Industrial/Organizational Psychology focuses on organizational levels and ways to match individuals to workspaces, leadership styles to enhance productivity
• Forensic Psychology examines the relationship between psychology and law, which usually involves assessing an accused person's mental state
• Health Psychology studies psychological factors influencing illness
• Sports Psychology deals with the impact of psychological factors on participation in sports

Goals of Psychology

• Describe- Accurate depiction of behaviours (not interpretations)
• Understand- Accurate theories of what causes actions
• Predict- Assess likelihood of behaviors in a given situation
• Change- Use the insights to improve behaviors and societal conduct (therapy training etc)

Perspective on Mind, body and experience

• Nature-Nurture deals with genetics tendencies and genetic traits vs environmental factors
• Mind Body deals with separate entities like the mind controlling the body, and how to get that working effectively
• Evolutionary deals with how species evolves over time with an identification of inherit solutions

Concluding Remarks

• Psychology is a scientific study, using the tools of science to explore things related to the human mind
• It looks at understanding, explanation and the improvement of societal conduct
• Broad field involved in issues of the generation of knowledge, guidance counseling and measurement of behaviours

Chapter 2 introduces human growth and development

• Development is crucial part of developmental psychology
• The concept of human growth and development focuses on the physical, cognitive, and moral stages of a child's development
• This also highlights the progression of a child's development with biological references to genetics, cellular product and hormones

Learning Objectives

• Differentiate the concepts of growth and development
• Give at least four psychological principles of human development
• Explain the stages of the cognitive development of the child
• List the stages of physical development of the individual
• Explain the moral development process of the human person.
• Give the factors that affect growth and development

Concept of Growth and Development

• Across their lifespan from conception to death humans go through various stages
• the term Growth refers to biological or physical changes
• development refers to overall changes in the structure and shape of an individual

SN GROWTH vs DEVELOPMENT

• Growth can be quantified VS development is quantative and qualitative
• Growth is biological VS development is functional or behavioural
• Growth stops VS development is a lifespan
• Growth is structural VS development is functional
• External VS internal
• Focus on 1 aspect VS focus on various aspects

Principles of Human Growth and Development

• It proceeds from head downwards
• Its an orderly event specific to species
• Proceeds from center outward such as from womb to body parts
• From general grasp to thumb and finger
• The rate of growth varies in each individual

Stages of Human Development

• Conception typically 9 months-40 weeks with ovum, embryo, and fetus states with conception being fertilization forming a zygote
• In weeks 0-2 (zygote) the cells form like a hollow disk which implants in the uterus
• Weeks 2-8 (embryo) is the embryonic stage that involves rapid cell growth etc
• After week 9 with continued growth, the fetus gets bodily changes, breathing, blood circulation and prepares to go outside mothers uterus

Physical Development Phases

• Human growth (neonatal) begins at birth until transition from lactation to solid food and influenced by social trends and is about 25% of total body length before brain faciliates achievements
• Between 3-7 years early development grows and relies heavily on other supports to carry out activities as well movement
• From age 7 to mid and later development experiences a mid-growth spurt witnessing differences between bodies and systems based on puberty
• During adolescence rapid growth occurs with visible signs of hair development and changes to exterior parts
• As it turns into adulthood, height increase finally finishes by reproductive maturity and socioeconomic status affect the final adult stature

Cognitive Development

• refers to the acquisition and or mastery of certain mental abilities (Jean Piaget's Theory on its stages)

Moral Development

• Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg applied learning theory and psychoanalysis to argue morality is universal
• Thirty categories of morality include life, law, property etc from preconventional, conventional and postconventional stages in which there also has two distinct phases

Influences in Stages

• 1st stage is cultural and external
• 2nd stage is influence external morality in order to fit cultural needs
• 3rd stage (social) is to use abstract principles based on society norms
• 4th stage is people will adopt moral perspectives with a look to equality and humanity

Physical Characteristics

• Height/weight
• Eye and hair color
• Intelligence
• Pass down from parent-child to diseases like diabetes
• Envirnmental- Geography, physical surroundings, child rearing all play a key role
• Poorer children are shorter, consume less and get puberty later compared to wealthier

Other Influences

• Psychological stress impacts secretion of hormones and health
• Pollutants like air and 2nd hand smoke are not helpful
• The interaction of all the areas is important in these stages and to affect growth

Understanding and Managing Personality

• Temperament refers to genetic traits with origins in greece
• Character refers to your learnt social habits
• Personality is more than just genetics but how you show it

Definititions of Personality

• "Personality is the total sum of an organism’s behavioural patterns (current or potential) determined by genetics and environment" by Hans Eysenck
• "Personality is the typical behavioural patterns including emotions and thoughts that characterize a person's adaptation to life" by Walter Mischel

Type A personality: goal getters

• they like to be in control of their environment
• They are efficient and practical to a bottom line approach

Type B personality: socialites

• relationship-oriented, outgoing and charismatic
• Love to be liked and talk about themselves

Type C personality: thinkers

• They have creative analytical skills and excel in a situation with opportunity for them to be independent
• They are careful resourceful and excellent thinkers

Type D personality: supporters

• Like repetitive tasks and dont like rules to change
• They are shy but caring individuals

FIVE FACTOR PERSONALITY:

• Openness: trying new things
• Conscientiousness: being hard working and organized
• Extraversion: being outgoing
• Agreeableness: kindness
• Neuroticism: be nervous and unstable

Personality Theories

• Trait suggests personalities are innate
• Humanistic has desire to be the best version of themselves
• Social cognitive are based on observing behaviors

Freuds: Human Mind

• One idea of mind is that we are conscious, subconsicous and unconsicous depending on our current state Our actions are driven by instincts with the conscious mind acting to defend One defensive mechanism is to deny
• One way is through repression because if they cant find substitute then regression through child-like phases Freud also broke development down into 5 phases of pleasure There is oral/anal phases involving mouth and anus from stimulation
• The phallic stage is where a child finds interest in genital then latency before finding awakening with the opposite sex or an outside connection later

The Nature and Nurture Controversy

• Genetics and environment play a combined role
• Locke argued the human mind is a blank slate
• We are born not fully nature, not fully nurture but wired so that both can work towards change

Classical Learning

• Where a "stimulus" has ability to envoke or react original behavior from association i.e. ivan pivlov dog experiments
• Terminology: o UCS- Untrained signal o NS- A new untrainable signal o CS- a transformed new signal o UCR- is a result to the original signal o CR_ that is a learned result

Classical Conditioning In Work

• Start by having a naturally occuring signals then a neutral signal to build the connection over time and eventually have a signal even without unconditioned is when conditioning can happen
• Acquisition- this is the earliest stage of learning
• Extinction- decrease or disappears over time
• Spontaneous recovery- that memory recovers later once reminded

Everyday Uses

• Conditioning helps to affect the mind often shaping fears and the like
• By influencing or pairing stimuli
• Evaluative can be used to shape attitudes

Operant Learning

• An experiment done by B.F skinner that people repeat responses from positive reinforcements
• It uses the idea that organisms operate in their environment to seek stimuli
• Reinforcements following a response cause someone to make that response which builds a tendency to make that association
• Primary are like water
• Secondary are like money
• Positive reinforcement VS negative stimulus
• Punishment reduces stimuli or what is called negative punish
• Reinforcement will depend on consistent intervals or changing schedule

Operant Vs Classical

• Operant: voluntary vs involuntary
• Model- people watch each other
• Attention- Model must have attention
• Retention- Able to store the info
• Reproduction- Able to reenact behavior and keep behavior going
• Can either be reward or negative such as having the right result
• The process of motivating one to the state they can give the most to what they have

Motivation

• Is a drive that works to get people to that task
• Motivations have 3 basic parts of something being internal, an inference, and activating

Three different levels of motivation

• Extrinsic (or to achieve)
• Intrinsic
• Reward based incentives driving behavior to action

5.3 Theories of motivation

• Several theories have been propounded on motivation then these were catgeorized to what vs how

Content Theories

• A content theory is for "why am I doing it" factors within someone where motivation stems

Maslovs

• It ranges physiological, to safely and belonging into self actualization needs
• One must meet the the one below

Vrooms expectancy Theory

• Deals with expectancy,Instrumentality and Valence
• One must believe in the action and effort will lead to reward and deserve the compensation
• Equity theory : that there is equal labour

5.4 Importance of Motivation

• Turns things into action or levels of efficiency to achive goals
• It gets them working more

Why do we want to belong

• For connectedness and the desire to be supported
• We do well with friends and good support systems

Basic Needs

-Social and safety which lead too motivation

The goal is

-That people want to get what they desire

Need for Belonging influences:

-The need to relate is for internal happiness that changes how they act and present themselves -Maslov calls it needed because safety leads to other relationships to be a part of the bigger purpose Individuals seek those with mutual needs

Chapter Six

• Introduces this chapter
• Many expression to definition
• Includes, character and relationships with others

6.1 Theories of Emotion,

• The source may be physiological, neurologic, or Cognitive
• Variety and complexity of emotions includes judgement attended by pain or pleasure

6.3 Emotions

• Emotions dictate action of body to make that action more functional

6.5 Emotions and Rationality

• It uses two metrics to gauge success with the former one depending on the prior

A few metrics

• A situation causing offense (rational/irriational)
• There will or will not be a proper stimuli (Prehistoric vs city)
• In the end an actual objective vs the feelings are at bay but overall good will is objective"

6.6 Emotional Intelligence

• Was thought as an IQ before with new findings
• EQ involves ability to monitor or recognize your emotions

Two Aspects

• personal competences are internal, social are more awareness

Getting alligned means

• You can hear cues
• Acknowledge the strength of everyone and do not be afraid of negative feedback
• Be more honest and don’t be angry
• Be present and ready to deal
• be well placed and good work to be done All in effect there will need to be good management"

Types o fQuotient

• Intelligence, Emotional, Social, Adversity and Religious which all describe some aspect of yourself
• It gives you what is important to develop and manage in the present"

Stress

• Body’s responses to action, anger frustration etc
• The type can be acute as it may be danger and chronic over long period of time
• The causes exist in everyday life and are related to a variety of reasons

Stress in your Body

The body goes into fight or flight but over time as that builds it will hurt the mind etc so it is important to recognize the issues

It is important to have

-Consistent routine -Sleep well -Connect with people

Chapter 7: Career Goals

The importance in this type is how a job differs and will mean something to all depending on perspective You would want more room as a career with room for promotions"

Career development involves

• Experiences relevant even to a timeline
• What a job will be about the person
• Career includes position values that people evaluate
• What can maximize potential It includes getting to explore values and abilities to establish them"

Career Management Seeks to

• Retains good employees
• See that they have suitable ability
• Use resources with max satisfaction
• Good morale

This works through support via

• Communication
• Growth
• Help
• Time to learn"

7.4: Career Development Phases

• Gather info on what is possible by first looking into the skills and see if there is available jobs outside the firm
• See whats possible to be done is key to it all

Holland Vocational Types

• These have more expression in career choices
• There is no order, depends on similarity and how one handles things"

Some Examples

• Realistic is hands with active tools as they are stable

• Imaginitive involve analysts with more analytical actions as they are ambitious

• Those with music are open expressive

• A social aspect is well like in work, police, and strong charactered places.

• Verbal persuasion is a key selling point"

Traits in people

• Those with high and a strong need to see those goals are good, it comes off as they are intellectual
• It can create incongurence between job or bad because the bad decisions makers are not those with that traits

Advantages

• Easy and useful
• Helpful to connect with potential new worlds

Banduras Social Identity

The point is that there is a social and cognitive ability in play and to make the whole group better

Self efficacy is seen through having

• The strength and level the belief gives you with how you decide and follow action
• Its key is a connection to organize and use action for a result dependent on self influence

4 Sources

• Internal performance to outside interactions and thoughts about reactions to body

• People of it put themselves into these type

• Some do not and instead the opposite happens

• Outcome expectancy the behavior will happen

• That there is knowledge, resources and value

• In super theory, that it provides youth action can increase how people act to improve

• There could also be an impact to the overall community too, how to show the importance and give those with opportunities"