Insulin Physiology and Synthesis

Insulin promotes glucose uptake, storage, and utilization, helping control blood sugar after meals.

Insulin promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles.

Glucagon raises blood sugar by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen and the production of glucose.

Glucagon opposes the effect of insulin by increasing blood glucose.

A group of disorders where the body has problems with insulin and regulating blood sugar levels.

Insulin promotes the creation of fatty acids and their storage as triglycerides (fat).

Low blood sugar triggers the release of Glucagon.

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.

The process of creating insulin from preproinsulin, including the steps of preproinsulin to proinsulin, and lastly proinsulin to insulin, and the role of C-peptide

Elevated blood glucose, amino acids, and free fatty acids trigger insulin release.

Low blood glucose levels and high insulin levels prevent further insulin release, maintaining homeostasis.

Membrane proteins on cells that bind to insulin, initiating a cellular response after the binding.

Insulin receptors consist of two alpha subunits that bind insulin, and two beta subunits with tyrosine kinase activity

An enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other proteins, turning on intracellular signaling cascades.

Insulin stimulates the movement of glucose into body cells

A by-product of insulin production; serves as a measure of insulin production and may aid in preventing complications associated with diabetes.

An autoimmune disease where the body's immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.

The most common type of Type 1 diabetes, caused by the immune system attacking beta cells.

A rarer type of Type 1 diabetes where the cause of beta-cell destruction isn't the immune system.

A blood test measuring average blood sugar levels over 2-3 months; a value above 6.5% indicates diabetes.

A fasting blood sugar test (after 8 hours fasting); a value above 126 mg/dl indicates diabetes.

A glucose tolerance test; blood sugar 2 hours after drinking a sugary beverage; a value above 200 mg/dl indicates diabetes.

A blood sugar test taken at any time; a value above 200 mg/dl suggests diabetes, especially with symptoms.

Complete lack of insulin production due to the destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.

A lack of insulin, a hormone necessary for regulating blood sugar levels.

Alpha cells (still working), producing too much glucagon, a hormone that counteracts insulin (in type 1DM).

High blood sugar due to insufficient insulin.

Cells cannot get the glucose they need for energy, leading to problems.

Increased urination due to excess glucose in the urine drawing water with it.

High potassium levels in the blood due to insufficient insulin preventing potassium uptake by cells.

The body utilizing fat as an energy source due to lack of glucose.

Diabetes can cause a loss or change in sensation, leading to tingling, burning, numbness, or a combination of these feelings.

Diabetes can impact muscle control and movement, resulting in changes in walking patterns, weakness, and difficulty moving.

Diabetes affects the autonomic nervous system, leading to problems regulating bodily functions like digestion and blood pressure.

Diabetes increases the risk of infection due to reduced blood flow, weakened tissues, and glucose acting as a fuel source for bacteria.

Diabetes, especially its complications, can reduce blood flow to tissues, making them vulnerable to damage and infection.

Advanced Glycation End Products are harmful molecules formed when high blood sugar levels persist. They can cause damage in various ways, impacting blood vessels and leading to complications.

AGEs can cause capillary basement membranes to thicken, hindering the exchange of oxygen and nutrients, reducing oxygen delivery to tissues. They also make capillaries leaky, leading to fluid buildup.

AGEs can stimulate the growth of smooth muscle cells in arteries, leading to thicker artery walls, contributing to hypertension (high blood pressure) and plaque buildup.

AGEs generate free radicals that damage blood vessel linings (endothelial cells), causing inflammation and further damage.

AGEs can inactivate nitric oxide, a molecule that relaxes blood vessels. This leads to vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels), increasing blood pressure and reducing blood flow.

This pathway converts glucose into sorbitol, a sugar alcohol, when blood sugar is very high. It's a backup mechanism but can be detrimental.

Sorbitol accumulates in cells when the polyol pathway is activated, pulling water into the cells due to osmotic pressure.

The excess water inside cells due to sorbitol buildup can cause them to swell and potentially damage.