Insulin Physiology Overview

<p>Beta cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is used to measure insulin production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Promoting protein breakdown (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To receive insulin signals from the blood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gastrointestinal hormones can influence insulin release (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It promotes glucose storage as glycogen. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Promoting lipolysis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Stimulates protein synthesis by transporting them into cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It acts as an antagonist to insulin. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>HbA1c &gt; 6.5% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Storage of excess glucose as glycogen. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Facilitates potassium transport into cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glycogenolysis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>126 mg/dl (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oral glucose tolerance test (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Type 1A diabetes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Viral infections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nonimmune-mediated beta-cell destruction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Viral infections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>200 mg/dl (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Type 1A diabetes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They generate reactive oxygen species causing vascular damage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They inactivate nitric oxide, causing vasoconstriction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Accumulation of sorbitol causes cell swelling. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Formation of cataracts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It causes them to become swollen and less flexible. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prolonged activation without benefit. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Deep vein thrombosis (DVT). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells swell and potentially become damaged. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It promotes insulin resistance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Leaking of fluids and proteins into tissues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Genetic predisposition. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Blood vessel damage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tissue death in the nerve layer. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glomerulosclerosis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It causes cell swelling and damage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Retinopathy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proteinuria/albuminuria (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Myocardial infarction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hyperglycemia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Renal arterial stenosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Skin ulceration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Promoting plaque formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reduced blood flow to the heart muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Amputation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Insulin is a hormone that mainly controls blood sugar and fat levels, but also slightly affects protein use.

Insulin is produced by beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans, within the pancreas

Insulin breaks down quickly in the body, lasting only about 15 minutes in the blood.

High blood sugar, amino acids, and fatty acids increase insulin secretion.

Insulin receptors are found on cell membranes, and they're needed to receive the insulin signal. These receptors have alpha and beta units.

Insulin activates a pathway that moves glucose transporter proteins (GLUT4) to the cell surface, enabling glucose to enter cells.

Insulin synthesis has three stages: preproinsulin, proinsulin, and then mature insulin.

C-peptide is a part of proinsulin that's removed to create active insulin, but it's still useful for measuring insulin production and may help treat diabetes complications

Insulin helps regulate blood sugar after eating by promoting glucose uptake into cells and storing it.

Insulin promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Insulin promotes the synthesis of fatty acids and their storage as triglycerides, primarily in fat tissue.

Glucagon opposes insulin by increasing blood sugar levels (antagonist).

Glucagon release is triggered by low blood sugar levels.

Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose.

HbA1c level above 6.5% indicates diabetes, measuring average blood sugar over 2-3 months.

Diabetes mellitus is a group of disorders characterized by problems with insulin activity, leading to high blood sugar levels and difficulty regulating glucose metabolism.

Blood sugar level above 126 mg/dL after an 8-hour fast, indicating potential diabetes.

Blood sugar level above 200 mg/dL two hours after a sugary drink, suggesting possible diabetes.

Blood sugar reading over 200 mg/dL taken anytime; a possible sign of diabetes, especially with symptoms.

Autoimmune disease where the body attacks insulin-producing cells; often develops in childhood.

Immune system attacking beta cells; possibly triggered by genetics and environmental factors (like viruses).

Rare form of Type 1 diabetes; beta cell destruction NOT caused by the immune system; other illnesses can be linked.

A condition where the pancreas is inflamed, which could cause Type 1B DM.

The key process in both Type 1A and Type 1B DM, leading to a lack of insulin production.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) create free radicals, which harm blood vessel linings, causing inflammation and damage.

AGEs can inactivate nitric oxide, a molecule that relaxes blood vessels, leading to vasoconstriction (narrowing) and poor blood flow.

AGEs can promote blood clot formation in capillaries and veins, causing restricted blood flow and potentially leading to dangerous conditions (like DVT).

An alternative pathway for glucose use in cells. It becomes a problem when blood sugar is too high.

High blood sugar shunts glucose to the polyol pathway, producing sorbitol, which increases osmotic pressure and draws water into cells.

Excess sorbitol in cells causes swelling and potential damage to cells, leading to problems in tissues.

The eye lens, particularly vulnerable to the polyol pathway, can form cataracts due to sorbitol accumulation and cell damage.

High blood sugars can cause prolonged activation of protein kinase C (PKC), which causes issues with cell processes.

The presence of excess protein (albumin) in the urine, often the first sign of diabetic kidney disease.

A progressive decline in kidney function, where the kidneys are unable to filter waste products efficiently.

The final stage of kidney failure, where the kidneys completely stop functioning.

The build-up of fatty deposits (plaque) in arteries, which occurs prematurely and more aggressively in people with diabetes.

High blood sugar levels contribute to the development of atherosclerosis through various mechanisms.

Imbalances in blood lipid levels (high LDL, low HDL) are linked to the development of atherosclerosis.

Harmful molecules formed by high blood sugar, which damage blood vessels and promote plaque formation.

Atherosclerosis can lead to various health problems, including heart disease, stroke, and kidney problems.

PKC activation disrupts normal insulin signaling, making cells less responsive to insulin, which contributes to insulin resistance.

PKC activation weakens the barriers between blood vessels and tissues, allowing fluids and proteins to leak out, which can lead to swelling and inflammation.

The membrane surrounding capillaries thickens, making it harder for oxygen and nutrients to get to tissues, impairing their function.

PKC activation causes blood vessels to constrict, reducing blood flow to tissues.

These harmful molecules form when blood sugar levels are high for long periods and damage blood vessels, contributing to complications.

This pathway is triggered by high blood sugar, causing cell swelling and damage, especially in the eyes and nerves.

Damage to the blood vessels in the retina, often caused by reduced blood flow due to vessel thickening and clotting.

Kidney disease caused by damage to the filtering units (glomeruli) and tubules, likely due to high blood pressure, membrane thickening, and scarring.