Impact of Nutrition on Child Development
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary location where improvements in achievement test scores occurred in New York City schools?

  • Among students from low-income families
  • Among students who were performing worst academically (correct)
  • Among high-achieving students
  • Among students with highly educated parents

    • What is the long-range impact of early diet on behavioral functioning?

  • It has no impact on behavioral functioning
  • It only affects cognitive development
  • It is altered by the presence or absence of other risk and protective factors (correct)
  • It has a direct and unalterable effect

    • What can reduce the impact of poor nutrition on cognitive development?

  • Socioeconomic status
  • Parental education level (correct)
  • Genetic predisposition
  • Environmental toxins

    • What is the focus of the discussion in section 2.3?

    <p>Prenatal and early postnatal brain development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of intervening to reduce one risk factor, such as malnutrition?

    <p>The impact of other negative influences on development is reduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can helping professionals better understand by giving attention to the workings of the central nervous system?

    <p>How their clients think, feel, and learn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of kwashiorkor?

    <p>Stunted growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of the study on New York City schools' food supply?

    <p>An improvement in children's cognitive functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the gene that was found to be demethylated in individuals exposed to famine early in gestation?

    <p>IGF2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential effect of prenatal nutrition on cognitive development?

    <p>Impaired cognitive development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a factor that influences the kind of epigenetic change that occurs in response to famine?

    <p>Both the timing of fetal exposure and the gender of the individual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of therapeutic diets on children with kwashiorkor?

    <p>Elimination of apathy but persistence of cognitive impairments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome for babies whose mothers received a protein supplement during pregnancy?

    <p>They performed better on measures of play behavior and perceptual habituation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a fetus being unable to build adequate stores of iron?

    <p>Signs of anemia by 4 to 6 months of age, affecting later school performance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the cause of the food shortage in the western part of The Netherlands during World War II?

    <p>A food embargo imposed by Germany.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the changes at the cellular level that result from prenatal exposure to famine?

    <p>Epigenetic changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a long-term consequence of prenatal exposure to famine, according to the research?

    <p>Increased risk of mood disorders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which the environment influences gene expression during fetal development?

    <p>Epigenetic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a history of anemia on later school performance?

    <p>Reduced academic performance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research design was used to study the effects of the Dutch famine on the developing fetus?

    <p>Longitudinal study.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus is a part of the brain that plays a central role in reactions to happiness.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rat pups reared by high LG foster mothers grew up to be more aggressive than rat pups reared by low LG foster mothers.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Meaney and colleagues found that the offspring of “high LG” mothers grow up to be more reactive to stressful events than the offspring of “low LG” mothers.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cross-fostering studies showed that it is the genes passed on by the mothers that influence low stress reactivity, not the mothers’ care.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pups who receive extra maternal care respond to stress hormones in the same way as other rats.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus is not involved in the recovery from stress arousal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Maternal stimulation of a rat pup causes permanent changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup’s hippocampus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus directly releases stress hormones in response to emotional messages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Demethylation of regulatory DNA in the hippocampus leads to a decrease in stress hormone receptors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is only connected to the hypothalamus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mellow female rats are more likely to be neglectful mothers to their pups.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Epigenetic changes caused by maternal behavior are reversed after the first week of life.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla contains nuclei that control emotional functioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The amygdala is responsible for assessing emotional messages slowly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Research suggests that human infants’ physiological responses to stress may not be influenced by parental closeness and care.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pons is involved in the regulation of emotional responses.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identical twins always have identical phenotypes due to their identical genotype.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damage to the medulla area of the brain is always non-fatal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is also known as the rational brain.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hippocampus in the reaction to stress?

    <p>Initiates the recovery from stress arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the finding of Meaney and colleagues' cross-fostering studies?

    <p>Maternal care influences the development of stress reactivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do pups who receive extra maternal care respond to stress hormones?

    <p>They respond differently to pups who receive less maternal care</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of high LG mothers' care on their offspring's behavior?

    <p>Their offspring become more mellow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical response of the body to glucocorticoids?

    <p>Immediate action followed by recovery and reduction of stress hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the offspring of high LG and low LG mothers in terms of stress reactivity?

    <p>Low LG offspring are more reactive to stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of demethylation of regulatory DNA in the hippocampus of rat pups?

    <p>It results in a minimal behavioral response to stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of high LG maternal behavior on the hippocampus of rat pups?

    <p>It results in a permanent change in the regulatory DNA of the hippocampus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cross-fostering studies on rat pups?

    <p>It indicates that the environment plays a role in shaping the hippocampus and behavioral response to stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do rat pups that experience high LG maternal behavior respond to stress hormones?

    <p>They respond quickly and produce fewer stress hormones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of demethylation of regulatory DNA on behavioral responses to stress in rat pups?

    <p>It results in a rapid reduction of stress hormone production and a calm behavioral response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key finding in the study on the intergenerational transmission of maternal behavior in rats?

    <p>Mellow female rats that experience high LG maternal behavior grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in regulating emotional responses?

    <p>To rapidly assess emotional messages and translate them into commands to the endocrine system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the limbic system in emotional functioning?

    <p>It supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain structure is responsible for rapidly assessing emotional messages?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be the consequence of damage to the medulla area of the brain?

    <p>It would be fatal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pons in the brain?

    <p>It is involved in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hippocampus in the regulation of stress hormones?

    <p>It is involved in the recovery from stress arousal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the connection between the limbic system and the cerebral cortex?

    <p>The limbic system is connected to the cerebral cortex through a system of nerve pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the medulla in the brain?

    <p>It controls basic survival functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus plays a central role in reactions to happiness.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rat pups reared by high LG foster mothers grow up to be more aggressive than rat pups reared by low LG foster mothers.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pups who receive extra maternal care respond to stress hormones in the same way as other rats.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cross-fostering studies showed that it is the genes passed on by the mothers that influence low stress reactivity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus is not involved in the recovery from stress arousal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ordinarily, when glucocorticoids are produced, the body has been aroused for immediate action, without a recovery from this arousal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Maternal stimulation of a rat pup causes temporary changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup’s hippocampus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Demethylation of regulatory DNA in the hippocampus leads to a decrease in stress hormone receptors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Epigenetic changes caused by maternal behavior are reversible.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rat pups reared by high LG mothers grow up to be more reactive to stressful events.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identical twins always have identical phenotypes due to their identical genotype.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Human infants' physiological responses to stress are not influenced by parental closeness and care.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus directly releases stress hormones in response to emotional messages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla contains nuclei that control emotional functioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is only connected to the hypothalamus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damage to the medulla area of the brain is always non-fatal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The amygdala rapidly assesses the emotional messages received from the cortex.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is also known as the rational brain.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with sleep disturbances can sometimes have abnormal activity in the medulla.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines the difference in stress reactivity between the offspring of high LG and low LG mothers?

    <p>Maternal care during the first postnatal week</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hippocampus in the regulation of stress hormones?

    <p>Initiation of the recovery from stress arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of cross-fostering studies on rat pups?

    <p>Rat pups reared by high LG foster mothers grew up to be more mellow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do pups who receive extra maternal care respond to stress hormones?

    <p>They respond differently, with a more mellow reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of high LG mothers' care on their offspring's behavior?

    <p>Their offspring grow up to be more mellow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical response of the body to glucocorticoids?

    <p>Arousal for immediate action, followed by recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the hypothalamus in response to emotional messages?

    <p>To translate emotional messages into commands to the endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain structure is involved in regulating basic survival functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration?

    <p>Medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pons in the brain?

    <p>Regulation of the sleep-wake cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the system of nerve pathways that connects the limbic structures to the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the amygdala in the processing of emotional messages?

    <p>Rapid assessment of emotional messages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of damage to the medulla area of the brain?

    <p>Fatal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the brain areas that are highly interconnected by neural circuitry?

    <p>Brain regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the limbic system in terms of social and emotional functioning?

    <p>Support of social and emotional functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of demethylation of regulatory DNA in the hippocampus of rat pups?

    <p>It turns off a gene that produces a stress hormone receptor in hippocampus cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of high LG maternal behavior on the hippocampus of rat pups?

    <p>It causes permanent changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, making it more sensitive to stress hormone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the offspring of high LG and low LG mothers in terms of stress reactivity?

    <p>The offspring of high LG mothers are less reactive to stress, while the offspring of low LG mothers are more reactive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical response of the body to glucocorticoids?

    <p>A rapid reduction in the production of more stress hormones, resulting in a minimal behavioral response to stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of maternal behavior in the development of the hippocampus?

    <p>Maternal behavior causes permanent changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, making it more sensitive to stress hormone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cross-fostering studies on rat pups?

    <p>The studies demonstrated that maternal behavior affects the development of the hippocampus and stress reactivity in the pups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hippocampus is the part of the brain that directly releases stress hormones in response to emotional messages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rat pups reared by high LG foster mothers showed increased reactivity to stress compared to rat pups reared by low LG foster mothers.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cross-fostering studies demonstrated that genetic factors, not maternal care, influence low stress reactivity in rat pups.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The body's typical response to glucocorticoids is to further increase the production of stress hormones.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The offspring of high LG mothers and low LG mothers do not show any differences in terms of stress reactivity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Maternal care has no effect on the development of the hippocampus in rat pups.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    High LG maternal behavior in rats leads to an increase in stress hormone receptors in the hippocampus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rat pups that experience high LG maternal behavior respond to stress hormones in the same way as other rats.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cross-fostering studies show that the genes passed on by the mothers influence low stress reactivity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Epigenetic changes caused by maternal behavior are reversed after the first week of life.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identical twins always have identical phenotypes due to their identical genotype.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mellow female rats are more likely to be neglectful mothers to their pups.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus directly translates emotional messages into a command to release stress hormones.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is only connected to the hypothalamus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla contains nuclei that control emotional functioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damage to the medulla area of the brain is always non-fatal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The limbic system is also known as the rational brain.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The amygdala rapidly assesses emotional messages slowly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pons is involved in the regulation of emotional responses.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nutrition and Brain Development

    • Improving nutrition in New York City schools led to increased average achievement test scores, with the greatest improvements seen in children who were previously performing poorly.
    • Children who experience poor prenatal and postnatal nutrition may not achieve their full potential in terms of behavioral functioning.
    • However, the impact of early diet can be altered by the presence or absence of other risk and protective factors.
    • For example, children who experience poor nutrition due to extreme poverty or war are less likely to have cognitive impairments if their parents are well-educated.
    • Reducing one risk factor, such as malnutrition, can have a positive impact on development and reduce the effects of other negative influences.

    The Developing Brain

    • Prenatal and early postnatal brain development is critical, with brain structures and neuron structures and functions forming during this period.
    • The brain is a complex system that underlies behavior, and understanding its workings can help professionals understand how their clients think, feel, and learn.

    Prenatal Nutrition and Brain Development

    • Prenatal nutrition can have a lasting impact on brain development and functioning.
    • Severe protein and calorie shortages during pregnancy can lead to kwashiorkor in children, characterized by stunted growth, a protruding belly, and extreme apathy.
    • Even less severe nutritional deficits can have an impact on children's cognitive functioning.
    • A study in New York City schools found that removing food additives and high-sugar foods from school meals led to improved cognitive functioning in children.

    Epigenetic Changes and Brain Development

    • Prenatal exposure to famine can lead to epigenetic changes at the cellular level, resulting in long-term consequences for brain development and functioning.
    • Examples of these consequences include higher rates of obesity, increased risk of schizophrenia and mood disorders, and more high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, and type II diabetes by age 50.
    • A study of babies born to mothers who experienced famine during pregnancy found that they were more likely to experience these negative outcomes.

    Maternal Care and Hippocampus Development

    • Variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alter the development of a rat pup's hippocampus, which plays a central role in reactions to stress.
    • Offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow, less reactive to stressful events, than offspring of "low LG" mothers.
    • Cross-fostering studies show that mothers' care, not genetics, makes the difference in stress reactivity.

    Epigenesis and Brain Development

    • A mother rat's external stimulation of her pup causes changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, leading to demethylation and increased sensitivity to stress hormones.
    • This results in a permanent change in the pup's brain and behavioral response to stress after the first week of life.
    • This change is heritable, as mellow female rats (who experienced extra mothering as pups) grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking, making their pups also mellow.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The hippocampus initiates the recovery from stress arousal by rapidly reducing the production of stress hormones.
    • The hypothalamus functions as an intermediary, translating emotional messages from the cortex and amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones.
    • The limbic system, including the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex, supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason.
    • The hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, which are outside conscious control.

    Maternal Care and Hippocampus Development

    • Variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alter the development of a rat pup's hippocampus, which plays a central role in reactions to stress.
    • Offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow, less reactive to stressful events, than offspring of "low LG" mothers.
    • Cross-fostering studies show that mothers' care, not genetics, makes the difference in stress reactivity.

    Epigenesis and Brain Development

    • A mother rat's external stimulation of her pup causes changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, leading to demethylation and increased sensitivity to stress hormones.
    • This results in a permanent change in the pup's brain and behavioral response to stress after the first week of life.
    • This change is heritable, as mellow female rats (who experienced extra mothering as pups) grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking, making their pups also mellow.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The hippocampus initiates the recovery from stress arousal by rapidly reducing the production of stress hormones.
    • The hypothalamus functions as an intermediary, translating emotional messages from the cortex and amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones.
    • The limbic system, including the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex, supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason.
    • The hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, which are outside conscious control.

    Maternal Care and Hippocampus Development

    • Variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alter the development of a rat pup's hippocampus, which plays a central role in reactions to stress.
    • Offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow, less reactive to stressful events, than offspring of "low LG" mothers.
    • Cross-fostering studies show that mothers' care, not genetics, makes the difference in stress reactivity.

    Epigenesis and Brain Development

    • A mother rat's external stimulation of her pup causes changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, leading to demethylation and increased sensitivity to stress hormones.
    • This results in a permanent change in the pup's brain and behavioral response to stress after the first week of life.
    • This change is heritable, as mellow female rats (who experienced extra mothering as pups) grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking, making their pups also mellow.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The hippocampus initiates the recovery from stress arousal by rapidly reducing the production of stress hormones.
    • The hypothalamus functions as an intermediary, translating emotional messages from the cortex and amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones.
    • The limbic system, including the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex, supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason.
    • The hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, which are outside conscious control.

    Maternal Care and Hippocampus Development

    • Variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alter the development of a rat pup's hippocampus, which plays a central role in reactions to stress.
    • Offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow, less reactive to stressful events, than offspring of "low LG" mothers.
    • Cross-fostering studies show that mothers' care, not genetics, makes the difference in stress reactivity.

    Epigenesis and Brain Development

    • A mother rat's external stimulation of her pup causes changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, leading to demethylation and increased sensitivity to stress hormones.
    • This results in a permanent change in the pup's brain and behavioral response to stress after the first week of life.
    • This change is heritable, as mellow female rats (who experienced extra mothering as pups) grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking, making their pups also mellow.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The hippocampus initiates the recovery from stress arousal by rapidly reducing the production of stress hormones.
    • The hypothalamus functions as an intermediary, translating emotional messages from the cortex and amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones.
    • The limbic system, including the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex, supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason.
    • The hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, which are outside conscious control.

    Maternal Care and Hippocampus Development

    • Variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alter the development of a rat pup's hippocampus, which plays a central role in reactions to stress.
    • Offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow, less reactive to stressful events, than offspring of "low LG" mothers.
    • Cross-fostering studies show that mothers' care, not genetics, makes the difference in stress reactivity.

    Epigenesis and Brain Development

    • A mother rat's external stimulation of her pup causes changes in the regulatory DNA of the pup's hippocampus, leading to demethylation and increased sensitivity to stress hormones.
    • This results in a permanent change in the pup's brain and behavioral response to stress after the first week of life.
    • This change is heritable, as mellow female rats (who experienced extra mothering as pups) grow up to be mothers who give their pups extra grooming and licking, making their pups also mellow.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • The hippocampus initiates the recovery from stress arousal by rapidly reducing the production of stress hormones.
    • The hypothalamus functions as an intermediary, translating emotional messages from the cortex and amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones.
    • The limbic system, including the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex, supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason.
    • The hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and reticular formation regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, which are outside conscious control.

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