Immunology Chapter on Cytokines and Antibodies
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of cytokines in the inflammatory response?

Cytokines mediate cellular reactions of innate immunity and stimulate acquired immunity in response to microbial antigens.

Define inflammation and its biological purpose.

Inflammation is the biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, aimed at eliminating these threats and initiating healing.

What is an Acute Phase Reactant Protein (APR) and where are they primarily synthesized?

APRs are proteins synthesized predominantly by the liver that increase or decrease in concentration during acute inflammation.

Identify two examples of positive Acute Phase Reactant Proteins.

<p>C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and Serum Amyloid A are two examples of positive APRs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What methods are commonly used to detect C-Reactive Protein (CRP) levels?

<p>CRP can be detected using the latex agglutination test and precipitation methods with anti-CRP antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the synthesis of Acute Phase Reactant Proteins?

<p>The synthesis of APRs is triggered by harmful stimuli such as acute bacterial infections, major trauma, and systemic vasculitis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of the detection limit of CRP by the latex agglutination test.

<p>The detection limit of 0.6 mg/dL indicates the sensitivity of the test for identifying inflammation levels in patients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin mediates mucosal transport?

<p>IgA mediates mucosal transport.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of IgM in fetal immunity?

<p>IgM is the first antibody synthesized in fetal life, providing immunity to the fetus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does IgM compare to IgG in terms of opsonization potency?

<p>IgM is 500–1000 times more potent in opsonization than IgG.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the presence of IgM in a fetus or newborn indicate?

<p>It indicates an intrauterine infection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one role of IgM regarding intravascular organisms?

<p>IgM is responsible for protection against blood invasion by microorganisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin is primarily involved in mediating coagglutination?

<p>IgG is primarily involved in mediating coagglutination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin serves as a marker for B cells?

<p>IgD serves as a marker for B cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin type has a questionable half-life?

<p>IgG3 has a questionable half-life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin type is known for mast cell degranulation?

<p>IgE is known for mast cell degranulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of avidity in antigen-antibody reactions?

<p>Avidity is a better indicator of the strength of an antigen-antibody reaction because it combines the effects of affinity and multivalency, allowing antibodies like IgM to bind more effectively than IgG despite having lower affinity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the geometry of antibody binding affect its interaction with complex antigens?

<p>The geometry of multivalent antibodies gets stretched when reacting with complex antigens, leading to less optimal binding interactions as they must accommodate multiple epitopes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why can antibodies cross-react with different antigens?

<p>Antibodies can cross-react with different antigens due to the sharing of similar epitopes among those antigens, allowing their corresponding antibodies to engage with them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What change is observed in IgG avidity over the course of an infection?

<p>IgG avidity increases over time, with later-produced IgG exhibiting stronger binding properties than IgG produced early in the infection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the structural characteristic of paratopes influence antigen-antibody specificity?

<p>Paratopes, the parts of antibodies that bind to specific epitopes of antigens, facilitate specific interactions, which are crucial for the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are allotypes and where are they located in antibodies?

<p>Allotypes are antigenic determinants present in the constant region of heavy and light chains of antibodies, encoded by multiple alleles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the presence of multiple epitopes on an antigen influence antibody production?

<p>When an antigen has multiple epitopes, it stimulates different clones of B cells, resulting in a mixture of antibodies known as polyclonal antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes monoclonal antibodies from polyclonal antibodies?

<p>Monoclonal antibodies are produced by a single clone of B cells targeting one specific epitope, unlike polyclonal antibodies generated by multiple clones against various epitopes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the Hybridoma technique in the production of monoclonal antibodies.

<p>The Hybridoma technique involves fusing a stimulated B cell with an immortal myeloma cell to create a hybridoma that can proliferate and produce monoclonal antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three allotype systems identified in humans?

<p>The three allotype systems in humans are the Km system for kappa light chains, the Gm system for heavy chains, and the Am system for heavy chains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do allotypes contribute to the diversity of antibodies among individuals?

<p>Allotypes contribute to antibody diversity by exhibiting variations in amino acid sequence due to multiple alleles within a species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the functional importance of allotypic determinants in antibodies?

<p>Allotypic determinants are crucial for distinguishing between individual antibodies in immune monitoring and for potential therapeutic applications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of B cells in producing polyclonal antibodies.

<p>B cells produce polyclonal antibodies by responding to multiple epitopes of an antigen, leading to the activation and proliferation of various B cell clones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it significant that allotypes differ by a few amino acids?

<p>The difference of 1-4 amino acids in allotypes can alter the binding affinity and efficacy of antibodies affecting immune responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of varying allotype expressions in therapeutic settings?

<p>Varying allotype expressions can influence the effectiveness and safety of antibody-based therapies, necessitating personalized approaches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three types of cells generated during the fusion of mouse splenic B cells and mutated myeloma cells?

<p>The three types of cells are unfused myeloma cells, unfused mouse splenic B cells, and fused hybridoma cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to purify monoclonal antibodies obtained from mouse ascitic fluid?

<p>Purification is crucial because the antibodies may be mixed with other antibodies and may not be in pure form.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do the double mutations in myeloma cells prevent?

<p>The double mutations prevent the myeloma cells from producing their own antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of HAT medium in the hybridoma technology process?

<p>HAT medium is used to subculture the cells and remove unwanted unfused cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue arises from using mouse-derived monoclonal antibodies in humans?

<p>Mouse proteins can induce an immune response, leading to the production of anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concentration range of monoclonal antibodies produced in mouse ascitic fluid?

<p>The concentration range is 1–10 mg/mL.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are unfused cells removed during the hybridoma cell selection process?

<p>Unfused cells are removed by subculturing the hybridoma cells onto HAT medium.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential solution to overcome the limitations of mouse-derived monoclonal antibodies?

<p>One solution is to create hybrid antibodies by recombining human and mouse proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of injecting hybridoma cells into the peritoneal cavity of a mouse?

<p>The purpose is to allow the hybridoma cells to multiply and produce monoclonal antibodies in ascitic fluid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Flashcards

Placental transfer

The transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus through the placenta.

Opsonization

The process where antibodies bind to antigens on bacteria, making them easier for immune cells to engulf.

IgM

The first antibody produced in the fetus, appearing around 20 weeks.

IgM in newborns

The presence of IgM in a newborn suggests an intrauterine infection.

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IgA

The antibody mainly present in body fluids like saliva, tears, and breast milk.

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IgG

The main antibody in the blood, responsible for long-term immunity.

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Coagglutination

Antibodies that can cause clumping of cells, facilitating their elimination.

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Mast cell degranulation

Antibodies that can trigger the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators from mast cells.

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B cell marker

The antibody that acts as a marker for B cells, helping to identify them.

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What are Positive Acute Phase Reactant Proteins (APRs)?

Proteins produced by the liver whose levels increase during inflammation. Examples include serum amyloid A and C-reactive protein.

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What is C-Reactive Protein (CRP)?

A protein that rapidly increases in concentration during acute inflammation. It can be detected by various methods like precipitation or latex agglutination.

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What is inflammation?

A type of immune response that occurs in vascular tissues when exposed to harmful stimuli. It involves the release of inflammatory mediators like cytokines, which activate the immune system.

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What are cytokines?

Proteins that act as messengers within the immune system, driving the inflammatory response. Examples include TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and interferons.

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What is acquired immunity?

The process by which the immune system learns to recognize and fight specific pathogens. It is initiated by signals from the innate immune system.

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What is innate immunity?

The first line of defense against pathogens, involving non-specific responses like the release of inflammatory mediators and recruitment of immune cells.

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What is a dendritic cell?

A type of immune cell that stimulates both innate and acquired immunity by releasing cytokines and presenting antigens to other cells.

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What is the nature of the bond between an antigen and its antibody?

The specific interaction between an epitope on an antigen and the corresponding paratope on its antibody.

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What is affinity in the context of antigen-antibody reactions?

The strength of the binding between a single epitope and its corresponding paratope.

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What is avidity in the context of antigen-antibody reactions?

The overall strength of the binding between a multivalent antibody and its antigen, considering all the epitopes and paratopes involved.

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How does the geometry of an antigen affect its interaction with an antibody?

Antibodies with multiple binding sites can bind to multiple epitopes on a complex antigen, resulting in less optimal binding interactions due to the stretching of the antibody molecule

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How does the valency of an antibody influence its avidity?

IgM, being multivalent, has higher avidity than IgG, despite having lower affinity.

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Allotypes

Antigenic variations found in the constant region of antibody heavy and light chains, caused by different alleles of the isotype genes.

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Polyclonal Antibodies

Antibodies derived from multiple B cell clones, each recognizing a different epitope on an antigen.

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Monoclonal Antibodies

Antibodies produced by a single B cell clone, specific to a single epitope on an antigen.

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Hybridoma Technique

A technique for producing monoclonal antibodies by fusing a B cell with a myeloma (cancer) cell, creating a hybridoma cell.

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Allotype Systems

Specific differences in the amino acid sequences of antibody heavy and light chains, caused by different alleles within a species.

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Allotype of an Antibody

The specific combination of allotypic determinants present on an antibody.

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Km System

A system of allotype markers found in the kappa light chain of antibodies, with three main types.

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Gm System

A system of allotype markers found in the heavy chain of antibodies, with 25 main types.

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Am System

A system of allotype markers found in the heavy chain of antibodies.

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Antibodies to Allotype Determinants

Antibodies produced in response to an antigen, targeting specific allotype determinants.

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Monoclonal Antibody (mAb)

A type of antibody produced by a single clone of B cells, all of which have identical antigen-binding sites.

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Hybridoma Cell

A hybrid cell created by fusing a myeloma (cancer) cell with an antibody-producing B cell, resulting in a cell that can produce a specific antibody indefinitely.

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HAT Media

A selective medium that allows only hybridoma cells to grow and proliferate. It contains hypoxanthine, aminopterin, and thymidine.

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Hybridoma Technology

A technique for producing monoclonal antibodies by fusing myeloma cells with antibody-producing B cells.

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Double Mutated Myeloma Cell

A type of myeloma cell that has been genetically modified to lose the ability to produce its own antibodies, making it ideal for hybridoma fusion.

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Ascitic Fluid

A liquid collected from the peritoneal cavity of a mouse, often containing a high concentration of antibodies produced by injected hybridoma cells.

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Purification of mAb

A process used to separate and purify monoclonal antibodies from ascitic fluid or other sources, often using chromatography or immunoprecipitation.

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Mouse mAb

Antibodies derived from mouse sources, which can trigger an immune response in humans, leading to the production of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA).

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Modified mAb for Human Use

Antibodies that are designed to be less immunogenic in humans, often by combining human and mouse protein components. Examples include chimeric, humanized, and fully human antibodies.

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Human Anti-Mouse Antibodies (HAMA)

The reaction of a human body against a foreign protein, like mouse antibody, resulting in the production of antibodies against the foreign protein.

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Study Notes

Immunology Section Outline

  • 9. Immunity (Innate and Acquired): Innate immunity is inborn resistance to infection, while acquired immunity develops over a lifetime.
  • 10. Antigen: A substance that provokes an immune response.
  • 11. Antibody: Specialized proteins produced in response to an antigen.
  • 12. Antigen-antibody Reaction: The specific binding of an antigen to its corresponding antibody.
  • 13. Complement: A group of proteins that enhance the immune response.
  • 14. Components of Immune System: Organs, Cells, and Products: Organs like bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen are central to the immune system.
  • 15. Immune Responses: Cell-mediated and Antibody-mediated: Cell-mediated immunity targets intracellular pathogens and abnormal cells (like tumor cells), while antibody-mediated immunity focuses on extracellular pathogens and toxins.
  • 16. Hypersensitivity: Exaggerated immune response that damages the body's own tissues.
  • 17. Autoimmunity: An immune response against one's own tissues.
  • 18. Immunodeficiency Disorders: Conditions where the immune system is weakened, increasing susceptibility to infections.
  • 19. Transplant and Cancer Immunology: Deals with immune responses related to organ transplantation and cancer.
  • 20. Immunoprophylaxis: Methods to prevent disease through immunity, such as vaccination.

Cell Types

  • CD4 TH cell: A type of T cell that helps activate other immune cells.
  • CD8 Tc cell: A type of cytotoxic T cell that directly kills infected or abnormal cells.
  • Dendritic cell: A professional antigen-presenting cell that processes and presents antigens to T cells.
  • Follicular dendritic cell: A specialized dendritic cell that presents antigens to B cells in lymphoid follicles.
  • NK cell: A lymphocyte that kills virus-infected and tumor cells.
  • Memory B cell: A long-lived B cell that provides rapid response to subsequent encounters with the same antigen.
  • B cell: A lymphocyte that produces antibodies.
  • Plasma cell: A differentiated B cell that actively secretes antibodies.
  • Mast cell: A tissue cell that releases histamine and other mediators in allergic reactions.
  • Neutrophil: A type of phagocyte involved in early immune responses.
  • Macrophage: A phagocytic cell that plays a role in both innate and adaptive immunity.
  • Target cell: The cell being attacked by a cytotoxic T cell or NK cell, such as a virus-infected cell or a tumor cell.
  • Antigen-presenting cell: A cell that processes and presents antigens to T cells.
  • Complement: A protein that enhances the immune response.

Immunity (Innate and Acquired)

  • Innate Immunity: Early defense mechanisms present from birth with non-specific actions against a wide variety of microbes.
  • Acquired/Adaptive Immunity: Immunity that develops after exposure to a foreign organism. This is a specific response with memory.

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Description

This quiz covers key concepts in immunology, focusing on the role of cytokines in inflammation, the function of Acute Phase Reactant Proteins, and the different classes of immunoglobulins. It explores the biological purposes of inflammation and the mechanisms behind antibody responses, including fetal immunity. Test your knowledge on critical immunological terms and their implications in health and disease.

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