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• Study notes on current issues in psychology

Prejudice

• A biased opinion or judgment, especially with a negative view based on age, race, or nationality.
• Judging older adults as incompetent and slow is an example.

Discrimination

• Acting unfairly and unjustly because of prejudice.
• Not hiring a qualified older adult due to assumptions about their energy levels or ability is an example.

Stereotyping

• Describes generalizing a group with certain characteristics.
• Assuming women are less capable in certain roles based on social norms is an example.

Positive Stereotyping

• Refers to favorable beliefs or generalizations about a social group that portray them in a positive light.
• Portraying Filipinos as hospitable is an example.

Negative Stereotyping

• Encompasses unfavorable beliefs or generalizations about social groups, often leading to prejudice and discrimination.
• The stereotype of "Filipino Time" is one example.

Self as a Cognitive Construct

• Sense of personal identity and of oneself as an individual.

Psychology and Self

William James

• Considered the Father of American Psychology
• Distinguished 2 understandings of the self: the "I Self" and the "Me Self".

I Self

• Relates to the existing self
• Knowing who one is
• Involves thinking, acting, and feeling
• Represents the private self, reflecting who one is personally

Me Self

• Depicts a person's personal experiences
• Represents the public self one presents to others.
• Can be broken down into subcategories: material, social and spiritual

Material Self

• Consists of tangible things that belong to a person such as body, family, clothes, or money

Social Self

• These are the selves exhibited in different social situations
• People tend to change actions, thoughts, emotions, words, and mannerisms based on the people they interact with

Spiritual Self

• Focuses on who people are at their core
• Includes personality, values, conscience, motives, and moral behavior

David Lester - Multiple Selves

• Individuals have different identities/personas that they exhibit depending on the context/situation.
• People adjust behavior and personality traits to fit expectations of different environments and relationships.
• John is relaxed, playful, and casual at home with family but serious, professional, and focused at work.
• These selves can be distinct, sometimes causing confusion about one's overall identity.

Unified Self

• This cohesive identity integrates all aspects of a person's personality into a consistent whole
• Represents who one truly is when all roles and identities come together.
• John behaves differently at home and work, but his core values like kindness, honesty, and responsibility stay the same. This gives him a consistent sense of identity.

Donald Winnicott - True Self

• This is the real, genuine part of one's self
• Includes true feelings, desires, and natural reactions.
• A child feels free to express joy and creativity while playing without worrying how others perceive them.

False Self

• The false self hides and protects the true self
• People adopt a false self to impress others and gain social acceptance.
• An adult may present as overly cheerful and agreeable in social situations, even when they feel anxious or unhappy inside.

Carl Rogers

• Believed in the inherent goodness of people
• Human beings always strive for self-fulfillment or self-actualization.
• Severe anxiety may result when the needs of the self are denied.

Self Schema

• Collection of knowledge one has about oneself.

Self Concept

• The image/idea one has of oneself.
• Develops via interactions with significant people and through self-awareness.

Self Image

• How you see yourself right now.
• Currently viewing yourself as someone who struggles with public speaking, feeling anxious about presenting in front of an audience.

Self Esteem

• How much you like and value yourself.
• Feeling worried about public speaking and doubting abilities lowers self-esteem when preparing for oral recitations.

Ideal Self

• How you envision the person you want to become.
• Aspiring to be is a confident speaker who can engage the audience and express ideas clearly during oral recitations.

Sigmund Freud

• Emphasized the importance of unconscious Proposed a three-structure model of personality:
• Id, Ego, and Superego

Id

• Represents pleasure-seeking behavior and is immature, impulsive, and childlike.
• Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires and instincts.

Ego

• Functions on the reality principle and mediates between the desires of the Id and the constraints of reality.
• Can delay pleasure and make rational decisions.

Superego

• Serves as the conscience and moral judgment, incorporating societal values and norms.
• Strives for perfection and judges actions based on moral standards.

Psychosexual Stages

• Each stage is characterized by the focus of sexual energy (libido) on different erogenous zones.
• Plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's personality.

Oral Stage

• Infancy to about 2 years old.
• The mouth is the primary source of pleasure.
• Sucking and biting are crucial for gratification.
• Issues during this stage can result in oral fixations in adulthood, such as smoking, overeating, or nail-biting.

Anal Stage

• Approximately 15 months to 3 years.
• The anus becomes the primary source of pleasure through activities related to toilet training.
• Conflicts during the stage cause anal-retentive behaviors (obsessiveness, orderliness) or anal-expulsive behaviors (messiness, destructiveness).

Phallic Stage

• Ages 3 to 6 years.
• The genitals are center of pleasure, and children identify their gender identity.
• This stage produces the Oedipus complex (boys desiring the mother and rivalry with the father) and the Electra complex (girls desiring the father).
• Unresolved conflicts lead to relationship and authority issues in adulthood.

Latency Stage

• Ages 6 years to puberty.
• Sexual energy is dormant as children focus on social interactions, hobbies, and developing skills.
• It is marked by the development of communication skills and social relationships.

Genital Stage

• Puberty onwards.
• This is the re-emergence of sexual urges directed towards mature sexual relationships.
• Individuals being exploring romantic relationships and developing a sense of responsibility regarding feelings.
• Successful navigation leads to healthy adult relationships.

Psychological Defense Mechanisms

Denial

• Refusing to recognize a threatening situation.
• A person diagnosed with a serious illness insists they are healthy, ignoring advice and symptoms.

Repression

• Pushing threatening situations out of conscious memory.
• A rape victim may have no recollection of the traumatic event.

Rationalization

• Making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.
• A person who skips a workout might say they needed a rest day, even if they simply didn't feel like exercising.

Projection

• Placing one's own unacceptable thought onto others.
• Someone cheating who accuses their partner of being unfaithful, projecting their own guilt.

Reaction Formation

• Condemns something that has an unconscious appeal.
• A person who secretly enjoys smoking may become an outspoken anti-smoking advocate.

Displacement

• Transferring emotions/behaviors to another that is less threatening.
• After a stressful day at work, yelling at family instead of confronting the boss.

Regression

• Falling back on childlike coping patterns in stressful situations.
• An adult with significant stress at work may throw a tantrum when things don't go their way.

Identification

• Trying to become like someone else to deal with one's anxiety.
• A teenager may adopt the style and mannerisms of a popular peer group to feel accepted.

Compensation

• Trying to make up for areas in which a lack is perceived by superior achievement in another area.
• A student who struggles academically might excel in sports to gain recognition and boost self-esteem.

Sublimation

• Turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior.
• Someone channels anger into exercise, such as hitting a punching bag or running.

Albert Bandura

• Introduced four agentive perspectives: intentionally, forethought, self reactiveness and self reflectiveness

Intentionally

• Enables action with purpose.
• Encompasses necessary planning and strategizing to achieve goals, for individuals to set their intentions clearly.
• A student creates a study schedule for an upcoming exam.

Forethought

• Allows for future anticipation of outcomes.
• This involves the ability to anticipate future events and outcomes based on current actions. It enables individuals to set realistic goals and prepare.
• Checking the weather forecast and deciding to bring an umbrella in case it rains.

Self Reactiveness

• This allows for adjusting behavior, staying motivated and and maintaining alignment with intended objectives during the process of achieving them.
• An idividual notices they are gaining weight and becomes motivated to change their eating habits and exercise routine to align with their health goals.

Self Reflectiveness

• Individuals can think about their behaviors and make modifications.
• Evaluating one's broader values, beliefs, and goals, encouraging critical thinking to foster self-awareness and adaptability.
• After receiving feedback from a colleague about presentation skills, the person reflects to improve for future presentations.

Carl Jung

• Introduced the 5 archetypes that represent fundamental aspects of human personality derived from the collective unconscious
• Influences our behaviour and interactions

Persona

• The public personality or social mask that an individual shows to the outside world
• A person may act cheerful and outgoing at work, even when they feel stressed/unhappy, to fit in socially.

Shadow

• Represents the darker, hidden aspects of our personality to the point of dislike or denial.
• It encompasses repressed weaknesses, desires, and instincts.
• An individual who prides themselves on honesty projecting feelings of jealousy or dishonesty onto others.

Anima

• The feminine aspect of the male psyche, representing traditionally female qualities, like intuition and emotional depth.
• Connecting creativity and emotional expression allows a man to develop into a more balanced personality.

Animus

• The masculine aspect of the female psyche, embodying classically masculine traits such as rationality and assertiveness.
• A woman taking on leadership roles/engaging in competitive activites strengthens her her animus.

Self

• The central archetype represents the blending of all aspects of of oneself and an integral personality
• harmonious balance between the conscious and unconscious mind.
• An individual working through their shadow, anima and animus may have a feeling of completeness and authenticity.

Carver and Scheier

• Self awareness how we understand of our self-concept and how we perceive ourselves,

Types of Self-Awareness:

Private Self

• Internal standards and private thoughts and feelings can shape perceptions

Public Self

• The aspect that projects the public image that an individual wants to express to the external world

Types of Self- Awareness

- Actual Self
- Ideal Self
- Ought Self

Actual Self

• Who you are at the moment.
• Includes: feelings, current behaviors and thoughts
• Currently a student who submits assignments late

Ideal Self

• Who you think is representative of your hopes and dreams She visioned herself disciplined and submits assignment on time.

Ought Self

• A perception of who you become based on what you believe you should become with morals and obligations
• Has expectations to be responsible and on time

Theories in Self Development:

Symbolic Interactionism Theory

• The understanding that our identities shape due to the experiences and information we have received during social interactions.

Social Comparison Theory

• This is understood by comparing our traits with those of other people to evaluate our behaviors, emotions and opinions.

Two Types of Social Comparison:

Downward

• Comparing ourselves to those who seem to have it worse, to boost self esteem
• I.E. A student who receives average scores enjoys that student because of another performing worse to boost self image.

Upward

• Comparing to to others who have excelled beyond us.
• Aspiring to be a musician but compares themselves with others who are considered to be better.

Self Evaluation Maintenance theory

• A theory of when someone close outperforms, especially in important areas, it hurts, and that our worth can be impacted by circle of relationships
• A student struggling with the feelings that another can receive a scholar.