Human Physiology: Respiratory System Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What term describes blood that is not completely oxygenated as it reaches the lungs?

  • Hypoxic blood
  • Partially saturated blood
  • Shunted blood (correct)
  • Deoxygenated blood

Which group in the medulla is most active during inspiration?

  • Pre-Bötzinger complex
  • Ventral respiratory group
  • Dorsal respiratory group (correct)
  • Pontine respiratory group

What occurs during an asthma attack that disrupts ventilation-perfusion coupling?

  • Constricted bronchioles leading to reduced air flow (correct)
  • Increased blood flow to the alveoli
  • Elevated CO2 levels in the blood
  • Increased cardiac output

Which aspect of ventilation is primarily controlled by the pontine respiratory group?

<p>Fine-tuning the breathing pattern (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to poor gas diffusion in the alveoli?

<p>Inadequate cardiac output after a heart attack (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process describes air moving in and out of the respiratory passages?

<p>Ventilation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which physiological process does oxygen move from the alveoli into the bloodstream?

<p>Pulmonary respiration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of systemic respiration in gas exchange?

<p>Exchanging gases between blood and tissues (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which function of the respiratory system contributes to the regulation of blood pH?

<p>Regulation of respiratory rates (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the respiratory system contribute to olfaction?

<p>By filtering airborne molecules in the nasal cavity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which chemical mediator is produced by the lungs to help regulate blood pressure?

<p>Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary method of sound production within the respiratory system?

<p>Air moving past vocal folds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during labored expiration that is different from passive expiration?

<p>More air is expelled due to forceful muscle contraction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the heme group within hemoglobin?

<p>To bind oxygen molecules. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hemoglobin is NOT found in adults?

<p>Embryonic hemoglobin. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the majority of oxygen transported in the bloodstream?

<p>Reversibly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood?

<p>It causes the blood to become acidic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about hemoglobin is true?

<p>Hemoglobin contains four subunits with iron-based heme groups. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes one way carbon dioxide is transported in the blood?

<p>Dissolved in the plasma or bound to hemoglobin. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do immature red blood cells play regarding hemoglobin?

<p>They synthesize various types of hemoglobin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about carbon dioxide transport is correct?

<p>Regulating blood carbon dioxide levels is crucial to prevent acidosis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of HCO3− diffusion out of red blood cells in relation to CO2 transport?

<p>It promotes greater CO2 transport. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are central chemoreceptors primarily located?

<p>In the medulla oblongata. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when hemoglobin is 50% saturated with O2?

<p>Two O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological factor is crucial in determining hemoglobin saturation?

<p>Partial pressure of oxygen (Po2). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?

<p>It describes hemoglobin saturation at varying Po2 levels. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to maintaining electrical neutrality during gas exchange in red blood cells?

<p>Cl− influx through the antiporter. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the saturation of hemoglobin affect oxygen delivery to tissues?

<p>Lower saturation enhances oxygen release efficiency. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are peripheral chemoreceptors primarily responsible for?

<p>Responsive to changes in blood O2 and CO2 concentrations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change occurs with increased blood CO2 concentration?

<p>Decreased release of O2 to the tissues. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of CO2 is transported bound to hemoglobin?

<p>23% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the binding capacity of hemoglobin when more O2 molecules attach?

<p>It increases due to cooperative binding. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a lower binding of O2 to hemoglobin have on CO2 binding?

<p>Increases CO2 binding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What reaction does carbonic anhydrase catalyze in red blood cells?

<p>H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when CO2 levels increase in the blood?

<p>Increased production of H+ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is bicarbonate ion (HCO3−) transported from red blood cells in tissues?

<p>Via an HCO3−/Cl− antiporter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary form in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood?

<p>As bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between CO2 levels and blood pH?

<p>Increase in CO2 leads to acidic pH (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding the Haldane effect is true?

<p>More O2 binding decreases CO2 binding. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced when carbonic acid (H2CO3) dissociates?

<p>H+ and HCO3− (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in CO2 transport?

<p>To catalyze the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes the movement of oxygen from alveolar air into the blood?

<p>Pulmonary respiration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the respiratory system play in regulation of blood pH?

<p>It regulates pH by altering CO2 levels. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which function is primarily involved in the production of sound and speech?

<p>Voice production (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process involves the exchange of gases between blood and tissues?

<p>Systemic respiration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of the respiratory system?

<p>Nutrient absorption (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which chemical mediator is produced by the lungs to help regulate blood pressure?

<p>Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of olfaction in the context of the respiratory system?

<p>Detecting airborne molecules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the pre-Bötzinger complex in the regulation of ventilation?

<p>It establishes the basic rhythm of respiration. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition demonstrates insufficient blood flow to the alveoli as a disruption to ventilation-perfusion coupling?

<p>Pulmonary embolism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of inadequate cardiac output following a heart attack?

<p>Decreased perfusion of alveoli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During an asthma attack, what physiological mechanism primarily causes reduced airflow to the alveoli?

<p>Bronchiole constriction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which respiratory group's primary function includes fine-tuning the breathing pattern rather than generating it?

<p>Pontine respiratory group (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the contraction of the diaphragm have on the pressure within the lungs during inspiration?

<p>It decreases the pressure within the lungs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which muscles are primarily engaged during the process of quiet expiration?

<p>Internal intercostals and abdominal muscles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do external intercostal muscles contribute to the mechanics of breathing?

<p>They elevate the ribs to increase thoracic volume. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Boyle's Law, what relationship exists between the volume of a gas and pressure under constant temperature?

<p>Volume is inversely proportional to pressure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During labored breathing, which of the following describes the activity of respiratory muscles?

<p>All inspiratory muscles are active. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the muscles of respiration?

<p>To change the volume of the thoracic cavity for airflow. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the role of the diaphragm during expiration?

<p>The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of abdominal muscles during expiration?

<p>They contract to force organs upward into the diaphragm. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the rapid decrease in thoracic volume during labored expiration?

<p>Forceful contraction of internal intercostals and abdominal muscles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do costal cartilages play during the movement of ribs in respiration?

<p>They allow for lateral movement and expansion of the thoracic cavity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hemoglobin is exclusively produced before birth?

<p>Embryonic hemoglobin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of oxygen is transported dissolved in plasma?

<p>1.5% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological role does the tight regulation of carbon dioxide levels in the blood serve?

<p>Preventing respiratory acidosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of hemoglobin is specifically responsible for the binding of oxygen?

<p>Iron-based heme groups (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is NOT involved in the transport of carbon dioxide in the blood?

<p>Bound to myoglobin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which property of hemoglobin allows it to carry multiple oxygen molecules?

<p>Iron-binding capacity of the heme group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of excess carbon dioxide forming in the bloodstream?

<p>Blood acidity increases (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes how hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood?

<p>Oxygen binds reversibly to hemoglobin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process occurs as a result of glucose metabolism in cells?

<p>Carbon dioxide production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of CO2 in the blood is transported as bicarbonate ion (HCO3−)?

<p>70% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does carbonic anhydrase play in the transport of CO2?

<p>It catalyzes the production of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism describes the removal of HCO3− from red blood cells in tissues?

<p>HCO3−/Cl− antiporter mechanism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the binding of O2 affect CO2 binding to hemoglobin?

<p>More O2 decreases CO2 binding. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the pH of blood when CO2 levels increase?

<p>The pH decreases (more acidic). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which location does the Haldane effect promote CO2 binding to hemoglobin?

<p>In tissues where O2 is utilized (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed in the red blood cells?

<p>From CO2 and water. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when CO2 levels decrease in the blood?

<p>Carbonic anhydrase creates H2CO3 from H+ and HCO3−. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced when carbonic acid (H2CO3) dissociates?

<p>H+ and HCO3− ions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences the amount of CO2 that can bind to hemoglobin?

<p>The pH of the blood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which CO2 is transported in the blood?

<p>Dissolved in the plasma and bound to hemoglobin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During labored expiration, which muscles predominantly contribute to the forceful expiration of air?

<p>Abdominal muscles and internal intercostals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells?

<p>98.5% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hemoglobin is synthesized by immature red blood cells?

<p>Embryonic hemoglobin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to blood when there is a high concentration of carbon dioxide?

<p>Blood becomes acidic (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of hemoglobin is responsible for binding oxygen?

<p>Iron-based heme group (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which form is the minority of carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

<p>Dissolved in plasma (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely consequence of damage superior to the origin of the phrenic nerve?

<p>Death unless artificial respiration is provided (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which muscles are primarily responsible for inhalation?

<p>Intercostal muscles and diaphragm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of hemoglobin in the blood?

<p>Transferring oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide back (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition occurs with paralysis of the intercostal muscles resulting from spinal cord injury?

<p>Complete dependence on diaphragm for breathing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about the respiratory organs?

<p>The larynx is vital for sound production and airway protection. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of bicarbonate ion (HCO3−) diffusion out of red blood cells?

<p>To maintain electrical neutrality and enhance CO2 transport (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is hemoglobin saturation measured when two O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule?

<p>It is at 50% saturation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most significant function of peripheral chemoreceptors?

<p>Monitoring levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected physiological effect of a decrease in blood PO2?

<p>Increased oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily affects the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?

<p>Temperature of the blood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do central chemoreceptors play in respiratory physiology?

<p>Regulating pH balance in the bloodstream (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does increased carbon dioxide concentration affect blood pH?

<p>It lowers blood pH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological process does the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve illustrate?

<p>The percent saturation of hemoglobin at different blood PO2 values (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the transport capacity of hemoglobin when additional O2 molecules bind?

<p>It becomes increasingly effective up to a certain point. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does inadequate cardiac output have on ventilation-perfusion coupling?

<p>It leads to shunted blood. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which respiratory group is primarily responsible for fine-tuning the breathing pattern?

<p>Pontine respiratory group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the process of increasing inspiration?

<p>Stronger stimulation of respiratory muscles occurs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During an asthma attack, which of the following best describes what happens in the lungs?

<p>Decreased air flow due to bronchiole constriction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the medullary respiratory center in ventilation?

<p>To establish the basic rhythm of respiration. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which situation disrupts normal ventilation-perfusion coupling by reducing airflow to the alveoli?

<p>Asthma attack (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of fluid buildup in the alveoli regarding gas exchange?

<p>Poor gas diffusion due to increased distance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological condition occurs when arterial Po2 decreases to approximately 50% of its normal value?

<p>There is a large stimulatory effect on respiratory movements (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs in the lungs during pulmonary capillary perfusion?

<p>Blood flow matches alveolar ventilation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is primarily responsible for detecting changes in H+ concentrations in the blood?

<p>Peripheral chemoreceptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a low pH (acidic condition) influence the respiratory rate?

<p>It stimulates the respiratory center to increase breathing rate and depth (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the respiratory system is considered non-essential for generating the respiratory rhythm?

<p>Pontine respiratory group (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a 5 mm Hg increase in Pco2 have on ventilation?

<p>It causes an increase in ventilation of about 100% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the initial phase of inspiration according to the medullary respiratory mechanism?

<p>A basic rhythm is established spontaneously. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of moving air through the respiratory passages during inhalation?

<p>Sequentially conditioning the air for effective gas exchange (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the condition of having higher-than-normal levels of CO2 in the blood?

<p>Hypercapnia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the cessation of inspiration during respiration?

<p>Stimulation of medullary respiratory center neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When carbon dioxide diffuses from the bloodstream into the alveoli, what is this process considered?

<p>Gas exchange (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers a large increase in the rate and depth of ventilation?

<p>Moderate increases in Pco2 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the respiratory system primarily respond during periods of hypercapnia?

<p>Increase in ventilation rate and depth (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Ventilation

The movement of air into and out of the respiratory passages.

Pulmonary Respiration

The exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) between alveolar air and blood in the lungs.

Gas Transport

The movement of O2 and CO2 in the blood to and from the cells.

Systemic Respiration

Gas exchange between the blood and body tissues. O2 moves from blood to cells, and CO2 moves from cells to blood.

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Respiratory System Function: Blood pH Regulation

The respiratory system alters blood pH by changing CO2 levels.

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Respiratory System Function: Chemical Mediators

The lungs produce chemical mediators, like ACE, for blood pressure regulation.

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Respiratory System Function: Voice Production

Air moving past vocal folds creates sound and speech.

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Respiratory System Function: Olfaction

The sense of smell is related to the respiratory system, as airborne molecules are detected in nasal cavities.

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HCO3- diffusion in RBCs

HCO3- diffuses out of red blood cells, while Cl- diffuses in, maintaining electrical neutrality and facilitating CO2 transport.

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Central Chemoreceptors

Specialized neurons in the medulla oblongata that detect changes in chemical concentrations, particularly CO2.

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Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Specialized neurons in the carotid and aortic bodies that detect changes in chemical concentrations, including O2, CO2, and pH.

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100% Hemoglobin Saturation

When four O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells.

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50% Hemoglobin Saturation

When an average of two O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells.

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Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Graphical representation of hemoglobin's percent saturation with oxygen at different blood partial pressures of oxygen (PO2).

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Labored Expiration

Forced exhalation involving the active contraction of internal intercostal and abdominal muscles, resulting in a quicker and greater decrease in thoracic volume than passive recoil.

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Hemoglobin

A complex protein found in red blood cells that binds and transports oxygen.

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Oxygen Transport (O2)

Approximately 98.5% of oxygen is carried reversibly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, while the remaining 1.5% is dissolved in blood plasma.

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Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Transport

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood through three mechanisms: dissolved in the plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.

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Hemoglobin Types

Hemoglobin exists in various forms (embryonic, fetal, adult, hemoglobin-S) throughout development.

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Heme Group

The part of hemoglobin that binds oxygen, containing iron.

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Carbon Dioxide Regulation

Blood CO2 concentration must be tightly controlled; too much CO2 makes blood acidic.

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Respiratory Membrane

The thin membrane separating the air in the lungs from the blood, which oxygen diffuses through to enter the bloodstream.

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CO2 transport by Hemoglobin

Approximately 23% of CO2 is transported bound to hemoglobin, which binds reversibly to hemoglobin.

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Haldane effect

The lower the oxygen bound to hemoglobin, the higher the CO2 binding capacity of hemoglobin, and vice-versa.

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CO2 transport as Bicarbonate Ions

About 70% of blood CO2 is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) dissolved in red blood cells or plasma.

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Carbonic anhydrase

An enzyme in red blood cells that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) from CO2 and water (H2O).

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Carbonic Acid Formation

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) forms from CO2 and water, then dissociates into Hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ( HCO3-).

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CO2 levels and pH

Increased CO2 levels leads to decreased pH (more acidic); decreased CO2 levels leads to increased pH (more alkaline).

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Chloride Shift

In tissues, where CO2 levels are high, HCO3− is exchanged for Cl− in red blood cells. H+ ions are also produced in red blood cells.

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Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling

The coordinated relationship between air flow to the alveoli and blood flow to the alveoli in the lungs.

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Shunted Blood

Blood in the lungs that does not become fully oxygenated.

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Insufficient Blood Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate blood flow to the alveoli.

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Insufficient Air Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate airflow to the alveoli.

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Dorsal Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla that primarily drive the inspiration phase of breathing.

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Ventral Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla regulating both inspiration and expiration phases of breathing.

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Pre-Bötzinger Complex

A component of the ventral respiratory group thought to establish the basic breathing pattern.

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Pontine Respiratory Group

A structure in the pons that fine-tunes breathing patterns.

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Local Control of Ventilation

Adjustments to ventilation based on conditions within the lungs, including blood flow.

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Ventilation

The movement of air into and out of the respiratory passages.

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Pulmonary Respiration

Gas exchange between alveolar air and blood in the lungs.

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Gas Transport

Movement of O2 and CO2 in the blood to/from cells.

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Systemic Respiration

Gas exchange between blood and body tissues.

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Blood pH Regulation (Resp System)

Respiratory system alters blood pH by changing CO2 levels.

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Chemical Mediators (Resp System)

Lungs produce chemical mediators for blood pressure.

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Resp System & Voice

Air moving past vocal folds creates sound.

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Resp System & Olfaction

Airborne molecules detected in the nasal cavity.

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Respiratory System Functions

Breathing, gas exchange, pH regulation, voice, smell, and production of chemical mediators.

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Labored Expiration

Forced exhalation where internal intercostals and abdominal muscles contract, leading to a faster and greater decrease in thoracic volume than passive recoil.

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Oxygen Transport

Mostly (98.5%) transported bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells. A small amount (1.5%) is dissolved in the blood plasma.

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Carbon Dioxide Transport

Transported in three ways: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.

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Hemoglobin Structure

A protein with four subunits, each containing an iron-based heme group that binds oxygen.

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CO2 Regulation

Blood CO2 concentration needs tight control; too much CO2 makes the blood acidic.

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Protection of Respiratory System

The respiratory system's defense mechanisms that prevent harmful microbes from entering the body and remove them from respiratory surfaces.

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Muscles of Inspiration

The muscles that work together to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity, drawing air into the lungs.

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Diaphragm

A major muscle of inspiration that contracts and moves downward, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.

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External Intercostal Muscles

Muscles between the ribs that elevate the ribs, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity during inspiration.

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Muscles of Expiration

The muscles that work to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, forcing air out of the lungs.

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Boyle's Law

The principle that pressure and volume of a gas have an inverse relationship when temperature remains constant.

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Thoracic Cavity Volume Increase

Expansion of the chest cavity, increasing lung volume and decreasing lung pressure to draw air into the lungs.

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Thoracic Cavity Volume Decrease

Reduction in the chest cavity, decreasing lung volume and increasing lung pressure to push air out of the lungs.

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Quiet Breathing

Normal, effortless breathing using diaphragm and intercostal muscles

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Labored Breathing

Active breathing involving more muscles to move greater amounts of air.

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CO2 Transport by Hemoglobin

Approximately 23% of carbon dioxide (CO2) is transported bound to hemoglobin. This binding is reversible.

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Haldane Effect

The lower the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, the more CO2 can bind to it, and vice versa.

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CO2 Transport as Bicarbonate Ions

About 70% of blood CO2 is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions dissolved in red blood cells or plasma.

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Carbonic Anhydrase

An enzyme in red blood cells that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) from CO2 and water (H2O).

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Carbonic Acid Formation

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) forms from CO2 and water, and then dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions.

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CO2 Levels and pH

Higher CO2 levels lead to lower pH (more acidic); lower CO2 levels lead to higher pH (more alkaline).

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Chloride Shift

In tissues, where CO2 levels are high, HCO3− is exchanged for Cl− in red blood cells.

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Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling

The coordinated relationship between air flow to the alveoli and blood flow to the alveoli in the lungs.

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Shunted Blood

Blood in the lungs that does not become fully oxygenated.

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Insufficient Blood Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate blood flow to the alveoli.

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Insufficient Air Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate airflow to the alveoli.

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Dorsal Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla that primarily drive the inspiration phase of breathing.

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Ventral Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla regulating both inspiration and expiration phases of breathing.

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Pre-Bötiznger Complex

A component of the ventral respiratory group establishing the basic breathing pattern.

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Pontine Respiratory Group

A structure in the pons that fine-tunes breathing patterns.

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Local Control of Ventilation

Adjustments to ventilation based on conditions within the lungs, including blood flow.

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Basic Rhythm of Ventilation

Spontaneous rhythm established by the medullary respiratory center.

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Labored Expiration

Forced exhalation involving active contraction of internal intercostals and abdominal muscles, leading to a faster, significant decrease in thoracic volume compared to passive recoil.

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Oxygen Transport

Approximately 98.5% of oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells; the remaining 1.5% is dissolved in plasma.

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CO2 Transport

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.

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Hemoglobin Structure

Hemoglobin is a protein with four subunits, each containing an iron-based heme group for oxygen binding.

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CO2 Regulation

Blood CO2 concentration must be tightly controlled; excessive CO2 makes the blood acidic.

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Hemoglobin Types

Different forms of hemoglobin exist during development (embryonic, fetal, adult, hemoglobin-S).

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HCO3- diffusion in RBCs

HCO3- diffuses out of red blood cells, while Cl- diffuses in, maintaining electrical neutrality and facilitating CO2 transport.

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Central Chemoreceptors

Specialized neurons in the medulla oblongata that detect changes in chemical concentrations, particularly CO2.

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Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Specialized neurons in the carotid and aortic bodies that detect changes in chemical concentrations, including O2, CO2, and pH.

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100% Hemoglobin Saturation

When four O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells.

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50% Hemoglobin Saturation

When an average of two O2 molecules are bound to each hemoglobin molecule in red blood cells.

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Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Graphical representation of hemoglobin's percent saturation with oxygen at different blood partial pressures of oxygen (PO2).

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Stopping Inspiration

Neurons stimulating respiratory muscles also trigger neurons to stop inspiration in the medullary respiratory center.

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Effect of PO2 on Respiration

While CO2 is the main regulator, changes in blood oxygen (PO2) can impact breathing rate. A decreased PO2 below normal triggers an increase in breathing, but only when PO2 is significantly low.

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Effect of PCO2 on Respiration

Carbon dioxide (PCO2) is the primary driver of breathing rate. Even a small increase in PCO2 significantly increases breathing rate and depth.

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Hypercapnia

A condition of having a higher-than-normal amount of carbon dioxide in the blood.

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Hypocapnia

Lower than normal amount of CO2 in the blood.

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Effect of pH on Respiration

Changes in blood pH, detected by chemoreceptors, influence breathing rate. Lower pH (more acidic) stimulates increased breathing to reduce CO2 levels.

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Gas Exchange (Alveoli)

Oxygen diffuses from inhaled air into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the bloodstream into the alveoli.

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Inhalation Pathway

Air inhaled via the nose/mouth passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, reaching the alveoli.

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Respiratory Muscle Paralysis

Loss of function in the muscles responsible for breathing, leading to difficulty or cessation of ventilation.

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Diaphragm Innervation

The diaphragm is controlled by the phrenic nerves originating from spinal nerves C3-C5.

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Intercostal Muscles Innervation

Intercostal muscles are controlled by intercostal nerves arising from spinal nerves T1-T11.

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Spinal Cord Injury & Breathing

Damage above phrenic nerve origin causes paralysis of both diaphragm and intercostal muscles, requiring external respiration to survive.

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Respiratory Organs

The organs involved in gas exchange: external nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

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Oxygen Transport in Blood

Hemoglobin carries most of the oxygen in the blood.

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Inspiration

The process of drawing air into the lungs.

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Expiration

The process of expelling air from the lungs.

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Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling

The coordinated relationship between air flow to the alveoli and blood flow to the alveoli in the lungs.

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Shunted Blood

Blood in the lungs that does not become fully oxygenated.

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Insufficient Blood Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate blood flow to the alveoli.

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Insufficient Air Flow

A disruption in ventilation-perfusion coupling caused by inadequate airflow to the alveoli.

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Dorsal Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla that primarily drives the inspiration phase of breathing.

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Ventral Respiratory Group

A group of neurons in the medulla regulating both inspiration and expiration phases of breathing.

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Pre-Bötzinger Complex

A component of the ventral respiratory group thought to establish the basic breathing pattern.

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Pontine Respiratory Group

A structure in the pons that fine-tunes breathing patterns.

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Local control of ventilation

Adjustments to ventilation due to conditions within the lungs, including blood flow.

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Basic rhythm of ventilation

Spontaneous rhythm established by the medullary respiratory center.

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Study Notes

Prayer Before Class

  • Holy Spirit, Divine Creator, true source of light and wisdom
  • Dispelling darkness (sin and ignorance)
  • Granting a penetrating mind, retentive memory, and method for learning
  • Expressing oneself lucidly
  • Guiding work, directing progress, and bringing it to a successful completion
  • Through Jesus Christ, true God, and true man, forever and ever
  • Amen.

Respiratory System Unit 11

  • Covers Respiratory System Physiology, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood, Pulmonary Ventilation, Lung Volumes and Capacities
  • Relevant to the Philippines and Medical Technologists
  • Unit Intended Learning Outcomes:
    • Describe the general functions of the respiratory system
    • Integrate understanding of physiology with pathophysiology of common diseases and conditions affecting the respiratory system

Formative Assessment Questions

  • Organs of the Respiratory System:

    • External nose
    • Nasal cavity
    • Pharynx
    • Larynx
    • Trachea
    • Bronchi
    • Lungs

  • Function of Hemoglobin:

    • Transports oxygen from lungs to tissues, and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

Formative Assessment

  • Ventilation vs. Respiration:

    • Ventilation: Movement of air in and out of the lungs. (A= Inspiration, B= Expiration)

      • Thoracic cavity expands during inspiration
      • External intercostals contract during inspiration
      • Diaphragm contracts during inspiration

    • Respiration: Exchange of gases across plasma membranes

      • Thoracic cavity reduces during exhalation
      • External intercostals relax during exhalation
      • Diaphragm relaxes during exhalation

Word Roots and Combining Forms

  • alveol/o: alveolus, air sac
  • bronch/o: bronchial tube
  • bronchi/o: bronchus
  • bronchiol/o: bronchiole
  • laryng/o: larynx
  • nas/o: nose
  • pharyng/o: pharynx
  • phren/o: diaphragm
  • pulmon/o: lung
  • rhin/o: nose
  • sinus/o: sinus
  • spir/o: breathing
  • thorac/o: chest
  • trache/o: trachea

Overview of the Respiratory System

  • Consists of structures used to acquire oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the blood
  • Oxygen is required for the body's cells to synthesize ATP
  • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-product of ATP production and must be removed from the blood

Ventilation vs Respiration

  • Ventilation (conducting zone):
    • From nose to the smallest air tubes
    • Strictly for ventilation only
  • Respiration (respiratory zone):
    • Solely within the lungs
    • Includes specialized small air tubes
    • Contains the alveoli site for gas exchange

Four Processes for Gas Exchange

  • 1. Ventilation: Air moves into and out of respiratory passages
  • 2. Pulmonary Respiration: O2 moves from alveoli to blood; CO2 moves from blood to alveoli
  • 3. Gas Transport: O2 and CO2 travel in the blood to and from cells
  • 4. Systemic Respiration: Gas exchange with tissues (O2 exits blood, CO2 enters blood)

Functions of the Respiratory System

  • Regulation of blood pH
  • Production of chemical mediators
  • Voice production
  • Olfaction
  • Protection

Local Control

  • Resting ventilation provides the body with the oxygen it needs
  • Pulmonary capillary perfusion: the flow of blood to the alveoli
  • Ventilation-perfusion coupling: the relationship between alveolar ventilation and blood flow
  • Shunted blood: blood not completely oxygenated

Neural Control

  • Dorsal respiratory group (DRG): Most active during inspiration (activates most during inspiration)
  • Ventral respiratory group (VRG): Active during both inspiration and expiration
  • Pre-Bötzinger Complex: believed to establish the basic rhythm of respiration
  • Pontine respiratory group (pneumotaxic center): Fine-tunes breathing pattern, not essential

Generation of Rhythmic Ventilation

  • Starting inspiration: Basic rhythm of ventilation automatically established by medullary center.
  • Increasing inspiration: More neurons gradually activated; strengthening stimulation for respiratory muscles.
  • Stopping inspiration: Neurons stimulating respiration muscles also stimulate medullary neurons to stop inspiration and inhibits further neuron stimulation for respiratory muscles.

Effect of PO2 on Respiratory Rate

  • Carbon dioxide is the primary regulator of respiratory rate but changes in PO2 can also affect respiration.
  • A decrease in PO2 below normal is called hypoxia.
  • Within the normal PO2 range, the effect of O2 is small.
  • PO2 level decreases beyond 50%, stimulates respiratory movements.

Effect of PCO2 on Respiratory Rate

  • Carbon dioxide is a primary regulator of respiratory rate.
  • Even small increases in CO2 levels can significantly increase the rate and depth of ventilation.
  • Hypercapnia: High CO2 levels in the blood
  • Hypocapnia: Low CO2 levels in the blood

Effect of pH on Respiratory Rate

  • Central chemoreceptors in the medulla react to changes in blood pH, via concentrations of CO2 and H+.
  • This is because H+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier.
  • Peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid and aortic bodies) detect changes in H+ concentrations directly.

Gas Exchange

  • Inhalation: Air moves through nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli → capillaries
  • Gas exchange in the alveoli: Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream and CO2 diffuses from the bloodstream into the alveoli
  • Exhalation: Air moves in reverse path as explained for inhalation

Disorders & Diagnostic Tests for Respiratory System

  • Effects of Aging:
    • Decreased ability to fill and empty lungs
    • Alveolar ducts and bronchioles enlarge with age, increasing dead space
    • Increased mucus accumulation and decreased cilia function
  • URTI vs LRTI
  • Paralysis of respiratory muscles:
    • Effect on diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Acute Pharyngitis

  • Rapid onset of sore throat and inflammation
  • Caused by bacteria or viruses (most commonly streptococcus pyogenes)
  • May or may not include exudate (pus)

Pneumonia

  • Infection of one or both lungs from bacteria, viruses, or fungi
  • Air sacs in lungs are filled with fluid or pus

Paralysis of Respiratory Muscles

  • Spinal cord injury impacts ventilation due to damage to phrenic and intercostal nerves
  • Upper spinal cord damage often leads to diaphragm paralysis, inferior damage to respiration.

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UST General Santos Respiratory System Unit 11 PDF

Description

Test your knowledge on the respiratory system with this quiz that covers key concepts such as gas exchange, the role of respiratory groups, and the physiological processes involved. Explore how ventilation, diffusion, and sound production work in the human body. It’s an essential review for anyone studying human physiology!

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