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Questions and Answers
What does the concept of universality in development imply?
What does the concept of universality in development imply?
- Development is highly individualized and varies widely between individuals.
- Cognitive and physical development occurs at entirely unpredictable ages.
- All children progress through the same stages of cognitive development. (correct)
- Cultural differences significantly change the stages of development.
Which of the following accurately reflects the idea of context-specificity in development?
Which of the following accurately reflects the idea of context-specificity in development?
- Environmental factors influence the paths of development. (correct)
- Development occurs in predictable stages for all children.
- All individuals experience the same cognitive milestones at the same ages.
- Developmental pathways are consistent across different cultures.
What does discontinuity refer to in the context of development?
What does discontinuity refer to in the context of development?
- Gradual changes in behavior over time.
- Consistent progression in cognitive abilities.
- Abrupt shifts or stages in development. (correct)
- Smooth transitions without significant changes.
According to the content, what aspect of development does Piaget's theory support?
According to the content, what aspect of development does Piaget's theory support?
What significance does age play in the context of cognitive development, according to the content?
What significance does age play in the context of cognitive development, according to the content?
What psychological conflict is characterized during the Phallic Stage?
What psychological conflict is characterized during the Phallic Stage?
In which stage do children primarily focus on activities like school and sports?
In which stage do children primarily focus on activities like school and sports?
What is the primary characteristic of the Genital Stage?
What is the primary characteristic of the Genital Stage?
What occurs when a child is fixated at the Anal Stage?
What occurs when a child is fixated at the Anal Stage?
Which aspect of a child's behavior is primarily driven by the Id?
Which aspect of a child's behavior is primarily driven by the Id?
What is the primary function of the ego in personality development?
What is the primary function of the ego in personality development?
During which psychosocial stage does the development of trust occur?
During which psychosocial stage does the development of trust occur?
What does the superego represent in terms of personality structure?
What does the superego represent in terms of personality structure?
Which of the following statements best describes the reality principle as it relates to the ego?
Which of the following statements best describes the reality principle as it relates to the ego?
In Erikson’s second psychosocial stage, infants begin to assert their independence. What is this stage called?
In Erikson’s second psychosocial stage, infants begin to assert their independence. What is this stage called?
What is the main developmental task during Erikson’s fourth stage, industry versus inferiority?
What is the main developmental task during Erikson’s fourth stage, industry versus inferiority?
What is the potential negative outcome of the identity versus identity confusion stage?
What is the potential negative outcome of the identity versus identity confusion stage?
During which stage do individuals primarily focus on developing intimate relationships?
During which stage do individuals primarily focus on developing intimate relationships?
How does Erikson define generativity in his seventh developmental stage?
How does Erikson define generativity in his seventh developmental stage?
What reflection occurs during Erikson’s final stage, integrity versus despair?
What reflection occurs during Erikson’s final stage, integrity versus despair?
What outcome is likely if a person's life review indicates a life poorly spent?
What outcome is likely if a person's life review indicates a life poorly spent?
According to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory, how do children primarily learn?
According to Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory, how do children primarily learn?
What is the primary focus of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning?
What is the primary focus of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning?
Which aspect is emphasized in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory?
Which aspect is emphasized in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory?
What concept in Ethological Theory is highlighted regarding behavior?
What concept in Ethological Theory is highlighted regarding behavior?
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Study Notes
Discontinuity in Development
- Discontinuity refers to abrupt changes or shifts in development, similar to stages or stair steps.
- Development can be continuous or discontinuous, meaning that development can be gradual and smooth or have periods of abrupt change, respectively.
- Development is not the same for every individual or culture, rather it varies depending on the societal context.
Human Development
- Universality vs Specificity
- Universality: all children go through the same stages of cognitive development in the same order at the same age (Piaget).
- Context-Specificity: development is influenced by environmental and social factors, leading to diverse paths.
Age and Significance
- Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the significance of age in development, with each stage characterized by specific challenges and psychological themes.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
- Stage 1: Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months): Focus on oral gratification, with the mouth as the primary erogenous zone.
- Stage 2: Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years): Focus on bowel and bladder control, with potential for fixation leading to anal retentiveness or anal expulsiveness.
- Stage 3: Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): Focus on genital exploration, with potential for Oedipus complex (males) and Electra complex (females) development.
- Stage 4: Latency Period (6 to 12 years): Sexual urges are suppressed, with focus on social development and learning.
- Stage 5: Genital Stage (12 years and beyond): Genital focus returns, with mature sexual identity and relationships.
Freud’s Structure of Mind
- Id: instinctual drives for pleasure and aggression.
- Ego: rational and realistic aspect, balancing id and superego.
- Superego: moral and ethical compass, incorporating societal values.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
- Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): Developing trust in caregivers creates a foundation for optimism about the world.
- Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Asserting independence and will, with the potential for shame if restricted.
- Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years): Exploring social interactions, with the potential for guilt if actions are deemed inappropriate.
- Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (5 to 12 years): Mastering academic and social skills, with the potential for inferiority if unsuccessful.
- Stage 5: Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence): Exploring personal identity and roles, with the potential for confusion if not successful.
- Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Forming close relationships and love partnerships, with the potential for isolation if unsuccessful.
- Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Contributing to society through work, family, and community, with the potential for stagnation if unsuccessful.
- Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Later Adulthood): Reflecting on life with acceptance and fulfillment, with the potential for despair if unsuccessful.
Cognitive Theories
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
- Children actively construct knowledge through processes of:
- Organization: grouping information into meaningful categories.
- Adaptation: Adjusting to environmental changes through processes of:
- Assimilation: Interpreting new information through existing knowledge.
- Accommodation: Modifying existing knowledge structures to adapt to new information.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
- Children actively construct knowledge through social interactions and cultural influences.
- Adults act as models for learning.
Information-Processing Theory
- Development involves how individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information.
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
- Learning through association.
- Stimulus and response patterns are learned.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
- Consequences of behaviors influence their recurrence.
- Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
- Development is influenced by interactions between behavior, environment, and cognition.
- Learning occurs through observation and modeling of others’ behavior.
Ethological Theory
- Behavior is heavily influenced by biology, evolution, and critical or sensitive periods.
- Critical periods are specific times when organisms are most susceptible to environmental influences.
- Sensitive periods are times when an organism is more responsive to particular experiences and learning occurs more easily.
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