Human Body Systems and Age-Related Changes

Urinary and Gastrointestinal Tracts

• Components include kidneys, bladder, ureters for the urinary tract; stomach, intestines for the gastrointestinal tract.
• Functions: Kidneys filter blood, form urine; bladder stores urine; stomach digests food, intestines absorb nutrients.
• Advanced age can lead to decreased kidney function, incontinence, and gastrointestinal disorders.

Right of Delegation

• Delegation refers to transferring responsibility for tasks from one person to another.
• Right task
• Right circumstance
• Right person
• Right communication
• Right supervision

Urinary Incontinence

• Types include:
  • Stress incontinence: Leakage during physical activity or stress.
  • Urge incontinence: Sudden, intense urge to urinate, leading to involuntary loss.
  • Overflow incontinence: Incomplete bladder emptying causing frequent dribbles.
  • Functional incontinence: Physical impairments preventing timely bathroom access.

Alterations to Bowel Elimination

• Ulcerative colitis: Inflammatory bowel disease causing ulcerations in the colon.
• Diverticulitis: Inflammation of diverticula in the intestinal wall.
• Irritable bowel syndrome: Functional gastrointestinal disorder resulting in abdominal discomfort.
• Crohn's disease: Chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, can affect any area.

Priority Setting Frameworks

• Survival potential: Prioritizing life-threatening conditions.
• ABCDE: Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, Exposure - a systematic approach to assessment.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Prioritizes basic needs before higher-level psychological needs.
• Safety and risk reduction: Prioritizes minimizing harm to the patient.
• Least restrictive/least invasive: Preference for methods that cause the least amount of harm.

Hand Hygiene

• Techniques: Wash hands with soap and water; use alcohol-based sanitizer when hands are not visibly soiled.
• Importance: Prevents infections, reduces healthcare-associated pathogens.

Steps of the Nursing Process

• Assessment: Collecting patient data.
• Diagnosis: Analyzing data to identify health issues.
• Planning: Setting patient goals and outcomes.
• Implementation: Carrying out the care plan.
• Evaluation: Reviewing outcomes and modifying care as needed.

The Joint Commission

• An independent organization that accredits and certifies healthcare organizations.
• Focuses on improving patient safety and quality of care.

Diagnostic Testing: Bowel and Bladder

• Bowel tests include:
  • Fecal occult blood test: Detects hidden blood in stool.
  • Stool culture: Identifies pathogens in feces.
• Bladder tests include:
  • Urinalysis: Assesses urine for various substances.
  • 24-hour urine collection: Measures kidney function and output.
• False positives can occur due to medication or diet.

Risk Factors for Constipation and Diarrhea

• Constipation risk: Sedentary lifestyle, low fiber diet, certain medications Iron.
• Diarrhea risk: High-fat diet, antibiotics, infections.

Objective vs. Subjective Data

• Objective data: Observable and measurable information (e.g., lab results).
• Subjective data: Patient's personal experiences and feelings (e.g., pain level).

Hospital-Acquired Infections

• Infections acquired during hospital stays, often preventable with proper hygiene.

Scope and Standards of Practice for Nursing

• Defines nursing roles, responsibilities, and expected practices to ensure safe patient care.

Historical Nursing Leaders

• Dorothea Dix: Advocate for mental health patients.
• Clara Barton: Founder of the American Red Cross.
• Florence Nightingale: Pioneer of modern nursing, established standards for care.
• Ildaura Murillo-Rohde: Advocate for nursing education and diversity.

Signs and Symptoms of Dehydration

• Symptoms include dry mouth, decreased urine output, fatigue, and confusion.

Risk Factors for Urinary Retention

• Factors: Neurological disorders, medications, bladder obstruction.

Indwelling Catheter Insertion Steps

• Prepare equipment, maintain sterility, insert catheter, secure, and document.

Epidermis Cells

• Melanocytes: Produce melanin.
• Merkel cells: Sensory receptors.
• Langerhans cells: Immune response.
• Keratinocytes: Form the protective barrier.

Novice-to-Expert Model

• Framework describing the progression of nursing skills and knowledge from novice to expert.

Types of Exudate

• Serous: Clear, watery fluid.
• Sanguineous: Blood.
• Purulent: Thick, yellow/green pus.

Types of Prevention

• Primary: Prevents disease before it occurs.
• Secondary: Early detection and intervention.
• Tertiary: Managing established disease to prevent complications.
• Quaternary: Minimizing unnecessary interventions.

Types of Acute Wounds

• Traumatic wounds: Result of injury.
• Surgical wounds: Postoperative.
• Moisture-associated skin damage: Due to prolonged moisture exposure.

Factors Influencing Blood Pressure Readings

• False high: Anxiety, improper cuff size.
• False low: Cuff too large, leg position.

Types of Pressure Injuries

• Stages of pressure ulcers are categorized as follows:
• Stage 1 indicates intact skin with non-blanchable redness;
• Stage 2 shows partial thickness loss of skin;
• Stage 3 involves full thickness loss with damage to subcutaneous tissue; and
• Stage 4 represents full-thickness tissue loss, extending to muscle, bone, or supporting structures..
• Risk factors include immobility, poor nutrition, and moisture.

Ethical Principles

• Autonomy: Respect for patient choice.
• Beneficence: Acting in patient's best interest.
• Nonmaleficence: Do no harm.
• Justice: Fairness in care distribution.

Blood Pressure Influencing Factors

• Increase: Stress, obesity, high salt intake small cuff.
• Decrease: Hydration, medication big cuff.

Postoperative Complications

• Infection: Introduction of pathogens post-surgery.
• Dehiscence: Surgical incision reopening.
• Evisceration: Organs protruding through a wound.
• Hematoma: Accumulation of blood outside blood vessels.

Domains of Learning

• Cognitive: Knowledge and understanding.
• Psychomotor: Skills and physical activities.
• Affective: Emotions and attitudes.

Patient Confidentiality

• HIPAA established guidelines to protect patient information.

Types of Wound Healing

• Primary: Direct closure (e.g., stitches).
• Secondary: Healing by granulation, contraction, and epithelialization.
• Delayed primary: Initially left open, then closed later.

Types of Pain

• Nociceptive: Pain from tissue injury.
• Neuropathic: Pain from nerve injury.

Alterations in Vital Signs

• Tachycardia (high heart rate),

• bradycardia (low heart rate),

• hypertension (high blood pressure).

• hypotension (low blood pressure)

• Tachypnea refers to rapid breathing

• Bradypnea (slow breathing)

  Seizure Precautions

• During seizure: Protect patient from injury, keep airway clear.

• After seizure: Position on side, monitor for responsiveness.

Types of Isolation

• Contact precautions are critical in healthcare settings as they help to prevent the transmission of pathogens like bacteria and viruses through direct physical touch between individuals or surfaces.
• Droplet precautions are essential in healthcare settings, wearing masks helps reduce transmission of airborne viruses.
• Airborne precautions are crucial in healthcare settings to minimize the risk of infectious diseases spread through the air, such as tuberculosis and measles.

Injection Angles

• Intradermal: 15 degrees.
• Intramuscular: 90 degrees.
• Subcutaneous: 45 degrees.

Types of Torts

• Assault: Threat of harm.
• Battery: Actual physical harm.
• False imprisonment: Involuntary confinement.

Communication Barriers

• Barriers include language differences, emotional distress, and cognitive impairments.

Clinical Manifestations of Prolonged Stress

• Symptoms may include anxiety, fatigue, headaches, and digestive issues.

Adventitious Lung Sounds

• Abnormal sounds indicating respiratory issues, such as wheezing or crackles.

• Rales, also known as crackles, are abnormal lung sounds that can be heard during auscultation with a stethoscope. They typically indicate the presence of fluid in the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs, which can occur in various respiratory conditions such as pneumonia, heart failure, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Rales can be classified into two main types:

  1. Fine Rales: These are high-pitched and soft sounds that are often heard during the end of inhalation. They are associated with conditions that cause pulmonary edema or fibrosis, where fluid or scarring affects the lung tissue.

  2. Coarse Rales: These are louder, lower-pitched, and more bubbling sounds that can be heard during inhalation or exhalation. They are commonly associated with conditions where there is greater volume of fluid or mucus in the airways, such as bronchitis or exacerbations of COPD.

  The presence of rales can provide crucial diagnostic information and guide healthcare professionals in managing respiratory conditions effectively. It is important to assess the characteristics of the rales, along with other clinical findings, to determine the underlying cause and appropriate treatment plan.

• Rhonchi are abnormal lung sounds characterized by low-pitched, rattling noises produced by the obstruction or secretions in the larger airways. These sounds can often be heard during both inhalation and exhalation, and they may indicate the presence of conditions such as bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or other respiratory pathologies that result in airway congestion. Identifying rhonchi can help healthcare professionals assess the severity of respiratory issues and guide management and treatment strategies to help clear the airways and improve respiratory function.

• Stridor is a high-pitched, wheezing sound caused by disrupted airflow in the upper airway, typically indicating an obstruction or narrowing of the airway. It is often most audible during inspiration, though it can also occur during expiration, and is associated with conditions such as croup, foreign body aspiration, or laryngeal edema. Stridor can be further classified into two categories:

  1. Inspiratory Stridor: This type occurs during inhalation and is commonly seen in conditions such as laryngomalacia or upper airway infections, where there is swelling in the larynx or throat, making it difficult for air to enter the lungs.

  2. Expiratory Stridor: This form occurs during exhalation and is more indicative of lower airway obstruction, which may be seen in cases of tracheal stenosis or bronchial problems.

  Prompt recognition of stridor is crucial, as it can signify a serious or life-threatening condition requiring immediate medical evaluation and intervention to ensure adequate airflow and prevent respiratory distress.

• Wheezing is a high-pitched whistling sound that occurs during breathing, particularly during exhalation. It is often a symptom of underlying respiratory conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or bronchitis. Wheezing indicates that the airways are narrowed or obstructed, which can be due to inflammation, mucus production, or bronchospasm. This sound can be a crucial indicator of respiratory distress and may signal the need for medical intervention. In clinical settings, the presence of wheezing can guide healthcare professionals in diagnosing and managing respiratory issues effectively.

  Handoff Reporting

• Involves clear communication during patient transfers; includes patient status, interventions, and safety concerns.

Risk Factors for Medication Toxicity

• Varied factors include dosage errors, drug interactions, patient age, and organ function.

Hyperventilation: Causes and Treatment

• Causes: Anxiety, panic attacks. Treatment includes controlled breathing exercises.

Electrolyte Imbalance Manifestations

• Hyponatremia: Confusion, seizures; Hypernatremia: Thirst, lethargy.
• Hypokalemia: Muscle weakness; Hyperkalemia: Cardiac irregularities.
• Hypocalcemia: Muscle spasms; Hypercalcemia: Weakness, kidney stones.
• Hypomagnesemia: Tremors; Hypermagnesemia: Flushing, respiratory failure.

Client Teaching for Home Oxygen Therapy

• Instruction on equipment use, safety, and signs of complications.

Client Teaching for Pursed-Lipped Breathing

• Method to control breathlessness and promote relaxation.

Modifiable vs. Nonmodifiable Risk Factors

• Modifiable: Lifestyle choices, diet, exercise.
• Nonmodifiable: Genetic predispositions, age.

Factors Promoting Sleep

• Consistent routine, dark environment, relaxation techniques.

Pharmacodynamics

• Key concepts:
• Peak (max effect),
• trough (minimum effect),
• half-life (time for half drug to be eliminated).

Incident Reporting

• Documenting adverse events for transparency and prevention; to be filled out promptly after occurrence.

Factors Influencing Pain

• Factors include psychological state, previous experiences, and the severity of the injury.

Infection Transmission Types and Isolation

• Includes contact, droplet, and airborne precautions, corresponding with specific infection control measures.

Acid-Base Imbalance

• Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis: Issues with metabolic processes.
• Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis: Issues with breathing and gas exchange.

Types of Leaders

• Different leadership styles, such as transformational, transactional, and servant leadership, influence team morale, collaboration, and ultimately impact the quality of patient care provided by healthcare teams.

Nutritional Sources of Vitamins

• Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vital nutrient for human health that plays a key role in collagen synthesis, immune function, and antioxidant protection. Citrus fruits, including oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruits, are particularly rich sources of vitamin C. These fruits not only provide a refreshing taste but also contribute significantly to the daily vitamin C intake. Consuming vitamin C-rich foods can support the body's ability to fend off infections and promote overall wellness. Incorporating citrus fruits into the diet can enhance the absorption of iron from plant-based foods, making it beneficial for those at risk of iron deficiency.;
• Vitamin K is crucial for blood clotting and bone health. Leafy greens such as kale, spinach, and broccoli are excellent sources, providing essential nutrients that support the body's physiological processes.
• Potassium is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in maintaining proper cell function, regulating fluid balance, and supporting nerve and muscle health. Foods rich in potassium include common staples like potatoes and bananas, which are both convenient sources that can easily be incorporated into a balanced diet. Other significant sources of potassium include leafy green vegetables, beans, and avocados. Ensuring adequate potassium intake is important for preventing conditions such as hypertension and minimizing the risk of stroke.
• Sodium is an essential mineral commonly known as salt, which plays a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions in the body. It is important to monitor sodium intake as excessive consumption can lead to health issues such as hypertension.
• Vitamin A, on the other hand, is a fat-soluble vitamin vital for vision, immune function, and skin health. It can be found in foods like carrots, fish liver oils, and dairy products, and it's crucial for maintaining good health and proper physiological function.
• Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in the body, particularly in promoting calcium absorption and maintaining bone health. It also supports immune function, enhances mood, and may reduce the risk of chronic diseases. The body produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight, but it can also be obtained from certain foods, such as fatty fish, egg yolks, and fortified dairy products. Deficiency in vitamin D can lead to health issues such as rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults, and increased susceptibility to infections. Regular monitoring of vitamin D levels and appropriate supplementation, if necessary, can help ensure adequate levels for overall health.
• Vitamins are classified into two categories based on their solubility: fat-soluble vitamins, which include A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble vitamins, which encompass the B-complex vitamins and vitamin C. Fat-soluble vitamins tend to be stored in the body's fatty tissues and liver, while water-soluble vitamins generally need to be replenished regularly as they are not stored and are excreted through urine.

This quiz covers the components of the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts and their functions, especially in relation to the aging process. It also delves into urinary incontinence, alterations in bowel elimination, and priority-setting frameworks in healthcare. Test your knowledge on these crucial topics in human anatomy and physiology.