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Introduction

• From 1948 to 1994, the Afrikaner National Party governed South Africa, restricting blacks.
• Apartheid, although relatively new, was formed by Hendrik Verwoerd and put into practice in the 1950s and 1960s.
• Walter Sisulu (1912-2003), Oliver Tambo (1917-1993), and Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) hailed from the Xhosa community and were pivotal ANC leaders.
• By the 1940s, these leaders had become more radical as part of the first ANC Youth executive committee.
• Sisulu left school at 15 to support his family, worked in a gold mine, and encountered Clements Kadalie, who headed the Industrial & Commercial Workers Union.
• He became a member of the SA Communist Party.
• In 1940, Sisulu became a member of the ANC after the group previously organized strikes and boycotts.
• Sisulu became Tambo and Mandela's mentor, establishing a real estate firm where he encountered young radicals.
• Tambo secured a Fort Hare University scholarship, where he met Mandela and was subsequently expelled for participating in protests.
• In 1942, Tambo encountered Sisulu and agreed the ANC needed revitalization.
• Tambo trained as a lawyer and established a firm with Mandela.
• Mandela, familiar with African chieftaincy in Transkeian Territories, was a ward at the Thembu Royal House.
• Like Tambo, Mandela was expelled from Fort Hare for protesting.
• Mandela met Sisulu and was encouraged to join the ANC.
• He practiced law alongside Tambo.

Race in 1948 South Africa

• In 1948 South Africa was divided into four racial groups: whites, Natives (Africans), Coloureds, and Indians.
• The original inhabitants were the San people.
• Around 2000 years ago, migrating Black African farmers integrated, with some San becoming farmers known as Khoikhoi.
• Africans established larger, more powerful chiefdoms and kingdoms.
• The Zulu Kingdom became the most powerful African kingdom in the early 1800s.
• Britain conquered the Zulus from 1878 to 1885, but Zulu remained the main language.
• During the 1900s, African nationalists struggled to create a common African identity from various tribes.
• Africans numbered 8.5 million in South Africa by 1951.
• Whites included 1.6 million Afrikaners, who were Dutch, French, and German settlers from the 1600s and 1700s, making up 60% of the white population in 1951.
• The remaining 1 million were English-speaking, wealthy, well-educated descendants of colonists, who dominated businesses.
• Descendants of San/Khoikhoi, Southeast Asian slaves, and mixed-race individuals known as Coloureds emerged in the early 1900s.
• In 1951, mostly in the Western Cape, Coloureds numbered 1.1 million and spoke Afrikaans (9% of the population).
• In the late 1800s and early 1900s, settlers in Natal brought in Indians to work on sugar plantations.
• Gujarati traders speaking English made up 3% of the population, primarily in Natal and Transvaal.

Segregation and discrimination

• In 1910, when it became self-governing, Britain did not require whites in South Africa to share power with blacks.
• MPs and most voters were white, with some richer, educated Coloureds and Africans able to vote only in the old Cape Colony.
• The Natives' Labour Regulation Act of 1911 established the terms of employment for Africans, including the requirement for pass books to access work areas.
• One of multiple pass laws was passed.
• The Natives Land Act of 1913 restricted blacks to 7% of the country's land in reserves, similar to those in the U.S.
• This was increased to 13% in 1951 through the Bantu Authorities Act.
• The South African Native College was founded in 1916 for African, Coloured, and Indian students, later becoming the University of Fort Hare in 1951.
• The 1927 Native Administration Act established the Native Affairs Department (NAD).
• White women were granted the right to vote in 1930.
• Most schools for blacks during the 1930s were mission-run and state-aided.
• The 1936 Representation of Natives Act eliminated black voters from the voter roll, resulting in complete disenfranchisement; whites made all decisions in the 1948 election, representing only 21% of the population.
• Most Africans lived in townships before 1948.
• Grand apartheid included separate housing and employment opportunities.
• Petty apartheid included segregated public facilities.

Domestic Servants

• Many wealthy whites hired black domestic servants, many of whom lived with the families, in the mid-1900s.
• Black women often cared for white children.
• Blacks used separate utensils and plates and ate separately.

Urbanisation, industrialisation, and townships

• In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal's Witwatersrand area.
• Johannesburg's population grew from zero to 100,000 between 1886-1900.
• Black mineworkers resided in large, single-sex compounds.
• The population reached 1 million by 1948, with blacks outnumbering whites for the first time.
• Gold mines became the basis of the industrial economy in the early 1900s, which diversified into textiles, chemicals, and food production.
• The state developed the iron and steel industry (ISCOR) and produced electricity from coal.
• Industry expanded during WWII as Britain couldn't export items, creating jobs for blacks. and 180,000 whites served in the armed forces.
• Resulting in post-war job competition between white soldiers and black workers
• Most Africans resided in rural areas, while most whites lived in urban centres.
• The government worried about the "poor white problem" because they could vote, so the state appealed to their insecurity/ expanded state employment.
• Cities largely remained white before 1948, but shack settlements began to appear as more migrants arrived.
• Townships were created outside cities, where people had little land security and poor healthcare, for black migrants.
• Soweto was the largest township.

Rural Society

• South Africa had long been a rural country.
• Whites owned 80% of the land by 1948, and blacks worked as wage labourers or tenants.
• Whites effectively maintained racial control (baaskap) in rural areas with blacks doing all the manual works
• Christianity via missionaries dominated some African reserves, where schools had also started.
• Taxation drove Africans into the cash economy, and they started donning modern clothes, making conventional garments from the imported materials.
• Women handled most of the household and agricultural work, while men became transient laborers in the cities.
• Reserves produced 50% of their food in 1948.

Afrikaner culture and politics

• From 1899 to 1902, the British fought two Afrikaner republics.
• Jan Smuts tried to bring the white population together to unite in 1910 while some Afrikaners resented that.
• JBM Hertzog established the Afrikaner National Party in 1913.
• Hertzog was victorious in the 1924 election with policy achievements including making Afrikaans alongside English one of the nation languages with making both languages compulsory at white schools.
• Hertzog and Smuts established the United Party in 1934 because the Depression undermined power.
• D.F. Malan broke away from Hertzog and re-founded the National Party.
• Centenary of Great Trek of 1838 resulted in celebratory cultural revival.
• Afrikaners established suburban communities in the 1920s and 1930s.
• The Afrikaner vote was significant in 1948, and they were seen as a volk sharing language, religion, and culture.

The influence of Britain

• In 1948 South Africa shared self-governing part of the Empire (Gov-general in Cape Town, Westminster-style parliament).
• People with British ties were 40% of the population.
• Because of the significant British investment in mines and industries with the popularity of highly successful British sports there were strong links made connecting SA to WWII on Britain's side
• In 1948 deep Afrikaner reactions which wanted a republic strengthened British ties

The National Party's victory in 1948

• The 1948 election was a turning point.
• In 1938, votes from Afrikaners split evenly between the United Party and the National Party.
• Parliament supported the British war effort in 1939, and Hertzog stood down while Smuts took control.
• For South Africa's future, the National Party rallied Afrikaners.

Growth of Afrikaner nationalism

• Beginning in 1939, the idea of the Afrikaner volk became crucial politically.
• The Broederbond was established in 1918 and gave way for selected white Afrikaner direction which provided republican, nationalist Christian outlooks.
• To promote Afrikaner businesses the Broederbond started in Economic Movement.
• The Calvinist Dutch Reformed Churches endorsed racial hierarchies, suggesting divine origin and opposing intermarriage.
• The churches supported the idea of autonomous volk where blacks and whites had different roles in God's plan resulting in divine designs that intermarriage would sabotage.
• Numerous Afrikaner nationalists opposed joining World War II.
• The Ossewabrandwag was launched in 1939 by Afrikaners influenced by German facism in the anti-war movement.
• Had more than 300k members

International context

• Before WWII, legal segregation and discrimination was common within the British colonies.
• However, the colonial empires dismantled with resulting war against concern for facism/Holocaust.
• White South Africans became convinced they were pro-Western, pro-Christian, anti-Communist values resulting in US southern states supporting them through it all.

The election of 1948

• Smuts implemented pro-liberal policies after the resulting war, willing to allow for black workers when needed.
• Health Minister Henry Gluckman advocated for all despite segregation by NHS in style health service.
• Afrikaner nationalists started to influence everyday racism so that more people were aware of of danger by blacks, commonly known as swart gevaar (black danger).
• It was fought with arguments to oorstrooming which meant to flooding with a result of Africans moving to cities for professions.
• Malan earned tremendous backing in rural communities but had said that Africans were streaming to cities which would be an issue for farmers in shortage of labor.
• Sympathisers like Smuts were blamed for being sympathetic to blacks and failure so political dangers could be addressed accordingly
• Though, Smuts got 49% of vote however Malan was still the victor with 38% of the whole vote back in 1948.
• Even With the major vote turnout coming from Smuts in English-speaking urban seat areas, Malan managed to grab several rural constituents' votes.
• Malan attacked Britain, mining capital and Smuts.

The codification and implementation of apartheid (1948-59)

• It was commonly believed that separate advancement of racial groups would result in guaranteed progress
• To continue doing everything through parliament.
• To explore methods and to promote the agenda of apartheid, commissions were then formed.

Reinforcing the National Party

• 6 MPs were added from white South West Africa to be in favour of Nationalist views.
• People sharing culture at the time despite separate coloureds voted for united party with the nationalists made it their plan to pull the group away from whites.
• To change the Coloured vote required a special majority within parliament- the Coloured vote was heavily protected within the Cape.
• Separate Representation Act within voters had the Coloured vote removed after the simple majority of votes back in 1951.
• With courts deciding the act was in fact invalid without 2/3 majority a new governor which appointed new to Afrikaner judges resulted in packing the Senate with Afrikaners
• Back in 1953 the National Party enhanced up to 600k votes from 400k but that did still not add to full white majority turnout.
• Once the National party became the majority it could be decided upon that they now take Afrikaner majority with the majority turnout within seats of governmental parliament.
• With majority new employees becoming Afrikaner, that meant state employment raised by 799k from 482k back in the 1950s.

Afrikaner Nationalism and Facism

• Similarities when comparing fascism to Afrikaner Nationalism includes racial ideology, view of volk which stood before Obsewabrandwag which meant they stood in support of Germany and the suppression which had gradually affected their ideas about socialism/communism.
• Differences in thought would revolve around tolerance of political dissidence among few due to the fact their race saw importance from different ideas than for their genocide views.

Apartheid Laws

• New strategies for Africans began to be in the works to give African self governed rights while they began reduction of white areas rights at the time,
• Instead of focusing on apartheid, there was new concentration on separate advancement ideas.
• Hendrik Verwoerd born in Netherlands was a dedicated Afikaner and later became eventual head of prime minister.
• Verwoerd moved National Party away from commonly viewed racist terms and instead now came ' separate development.
• Gave authority originally to tribal leaders with the Bantu Authorities 1951 Act at the time all from what was aimed local government who was wanting all parts of the South African party to come together to cooperate at the time.
• Moved to be prime minister from 1958 up to 1966.
• Self governing ethnically was fully allowed but not completely defined under the Bantu self government act so Verwoerd spoke on how it was different that it had came from the forms of internal de colonization through means.
• Assassinated 1966 when he was in the House of Assembly Cape Town.

Race Laws

• A lot of early Afrikaner leaders and individuals historically feared interracial sex considering settlers had relationships across black women.
• Illegal for interracial marriage/sex through Imortality Act during across 1950 including the 1949 with the Mixed Marriage.
• Sharply defined in 1950 during the Population Registration Act that made everyone classified by specific race.

Group Area Acts

• Minority owned city centre areas were allowed by the Centre by the Groups Acts to be eliminated.
• Pejorative was commonly part during racist terminology with preferred to 'Native'
• The party tried in the 1950s to find Bantu' for what the term Xhosa commonly was used, but Zulu became what is popular among those instead.

Sophiatown

• Predominately 60k people lived there from what was most african could hold within what ANC President Dr Xuama lived near.
• A mouthpiece of townships recorded the racy lifestyle the mouth piece which would eventually recorded Drum Magazines recording at this time.

District Six

• Residential and business were fully colourful all throughout Cape Town City.

Pass Laws

• Control space to include a ton of the pass laws as the first part.
• By the time 1953 the Reservation Act allowed for separate facilities and legal rights
• Control started from influxes of Africans into Nationalist policies. and protest against cheap Labor.

Education

• During Pre 1948 that many africans would be segregated even with elite schools

Tomlinson Report

• The Tomlinson Report spoke in great length, making a ton new advancements but had been highly criticized with a lot of flaws.

Political Suppression

• Under these means there were high oppressions with heavy views going forward with a ton of trials.

How did African nationalism develop, 1948-59?

• ANC rose as a major black opposition group, voicing radical action.

Political opposition in 1948

• No single black opposition group existed, and there was no united ideology because the group was divided by race, class, and interest.
• The National Party created police and restriction tactics to combat protest.
• Sparked by the 1910 Union of South Africa. Africans were excluded from equal political rights in the arrangement reached with Britain and firmly rejected the Natives Land Act of 1913.
• It was challenging to bring together a variety of Africans to confront white power head on.
• Despite its attempts, ANC couldn't garner widespread support.
• Its leaders were hesitant politically because they were hoping that the whites would in fact show promise of changing minds regarding it all

Dispersed Popular Politics

• Fractured movements characterized popular political sentiment.
• Commonplace strikes, boycotts, squatters, and mass revolts characterized by 1948
• Before passage of Group Areas Act squatters' or shacks were centres of contention.
• The land was occupied and riots occurred.
• James Mpanza formed the campaign in Johannesburg in Soweto.
• At some point was known ad Father of Soweto
• Organized by the Communist Party in part, African miners embarked on a massive strike of threatenening core with support from police

Transformation of African National Congress and Youth League

• Because of its capacity to draw in educated African elites, ANC has been effective in its continued ability to attract new members.
• Wide differences separated veteran leaders and more recent ones in the 1940s.
• By 1944 - ANC Youth League (ANCYL) founded, the movement has been rallied into one radical action, inspired rhetoric at this time.
• By youth the YL was being shown alarmed with white's ideals

ANC Links With Other Organisations

• In the 1940s, communists started to see support from black employees.

The Defiance Campaign of 1952

• Volunteers broke racial restrictions (curfews/segregated facilities) to risk arrest, and Mandela and Yusuf Cachalia of Indian Congress were volunteers-in-chief too
• This influence was highly made from both individuals
• All across these reasons however there was a goal and it fell short

The Freedom Charter

• The Freedom Charter had been formed to declare many basic rights which spoke of future unification for land, democracy and much more.

PAC opposition

• Non Africans were then removed leading PAC with many others to form on what had came of their own ideals with that.

The Sharpeville Massacre

• Following the establishment of PAC, managers tried to mobilize grassroots support by organizing in Vaa triangle and cape areas and it was extremely organised at first and the Vaal Triangle included coal mining and ISCOR.
• 1942 - Sharpeville created as model.

Political Prisoners

• The political prisoners were kept safe and had to overcome many things for this to come together.

National Party Control

• The National Party started to move ahead with most thing as it had came forth and taken away others by being put by force.

Why was the National Party so important at all during this era?

The National Party helped influence many things at the time for many reasons and had continued to grow ever since.