South Africa Apartheid Notes PDF

Introduction 1948-94 - Afrikaner National Party ruled SA (blacks restricted - apartheid planners envisaged 11 states with 10 for African ethnic groups) 1948 - Apartheid still new (forged by Hendrik Verwoerd and implemented in 1950s/60s) Walter Sisulu (1912-2003), Oliver Tambo (1917-1993) and Nelson...

Introduction 1948-94 - Afrikaner National Party ruled SA (blacks restricted - apartheid planners envisaged 11 states with 10 for African ethnic groups) 1948 - Apartheid still new (forged by Hendrik Verwoerd and implemented in 1950s/60s) Walter Sisulu (1912-2003), Oliver Tambo (1917-1993) and Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) Key leaders of ANC from Xhosa people 1940s - On 1st ANC Youth executive committee, more radical Sisulu: - Left school at 15 to find work to support family - Worked in gold mine and met Clements Kadalie (head of Industrial & Commercial Workers Union) - 1940 - Joined ANC (previously organised strikes/boycotts) - Set up real estate business - met young radicals - Became mentor to Tambo/Mandela - Member of SA Communist Party Tambo: - Won scholarship to Fort Hare University (met Mandela) - expelled for protests - 1942 - Met Sisulu and agreed ANC needed reinvigoration - Trained as lawyer, set up with Mandela Mandela: - Was ward at Thembu Royal house - familiar with African chieftaincy in Transkeian Territories - Attended Fort Hare (expelled for protests) - Met Sisulu, encouraged to join ANC - Practised law with Tambo What was life like in South Africa in 1948? Race 1948 - 4 categories in SA - whites, Natives (Africans), Coloureds and Indians Africans San were original inhabitants (hunter-gatherers) 2000 years ago - Black African farmers migrated in (some San became farmers - known as Khoikhoi Africans formed larger, more powerful chiefdoms/kingdoms Early 1800s - Zulu became largest African kingdom 1878-85 - Britain conquered Zulus (remained main language) 1900s - African nationalists struggled to create common African identity from tribes 1951 - 8.5m Africans in SA Whites 1951 - 1.6m Afrikaners (60% of whites) - Dutch/French/German settlers in 1600s/1700s 1951 - 1m English-speaking whites - descendants of colonists (wealthier, better educated, dominated business) Coloured and Indian people Early 1900s - Descendants of San/Khoikhoi, Southeast Asian slaves and mixed race people known as Coloured 1951 - 1.1m Coloureds (9% of pop) - mostly in Western Cape, Afrikaans-speaking Late 1800s/early 1900s - Natal settlers imported Indians to work on sugar plantations Gujarati traders became 3% of pop (in Natal/Transvaal) - English-speaking Segregation and discrimination Self-government in 1910 - Britain didn’t require whites to share power with blacks MPs/most of electorate were white (except some richer/educated Coloured/Africans in old Cape Colony) 1911 - Natives’ Labour Regulation Act set working conditions for Africans (needed pass books to enter areas of work) - one of pass laws 1913 - Natives Land Act limited blacks to 7% of land in country on reserves (like in US) - increased to 13% in 1951 by Bantu Authorities Act 1916 - South African Native College opened for African/Coloured/Indian students (became Uni of Fort Hare in 1951) 1927 - Native Administration Act set up Native Affairs Department (NAD) 1930 - White women could vote 1930s - Majority of schools for blacks were run by missions (state-aided) 1936 - Representation of Natives Act removed black voters from voter roll (disenfranchised completely - 1948 election decided by whites - 21% of pop) Pre-1948 - Most Africans lived in townships Grand apartheid - employment opportunities, separate housing Petty apartheid - segregation of public facilities Domestic servants Mid 1900s - Most whites with wealth had black domestic servants (often lived with them) Black women gave childcare to white children Blacks had separate utensils/plates, ate separately Urbanisation, industrialisation and townships Urbanisation and industrialisation 1886 - Gold found in Witwatersrand area of Transvaal 1886-1900 - Johannesburg grew from nothing to 100k pop Black mineworkers lived in huge, male-only compounds 1948 - Pop reached 1m (blacks outnumbered whites for 1st time) Early 1900s - Gold mines heart of industrial economy (diversified to textiles, chemicals, food etc) State developed iron/steel industry (ISCOR), generated electricity from coal WWII - Industry expanded when Britain couldn’t export goods; 180k whites in armed forces - jobs created for blacks (post-war - competed for jobs/space in cities) Most Africans lived in countryside, most whites in urban areas ‘Poor white problem’ concerned government (could vote - nationalists appealed to insecurity, state employment expanded) Townships Pre-1948 - Cities kept largely white (now too many migrants - set up shack settlements) Townships allocated outside cities for black migrants - Soweto was biggest Residents had tenuous land rights, poor healthcare/sanitation Rural society SA had long been rural country 1948 - Whites owned 80% of land (blacks worked on it as wage labourers/tenants) Whites kept racial authority (baaskap) effectively in rural areas - blacks did all manual labour Some Africans lived on reserves - missionaries meant Christianity was dominant (also started schools) Taxation forced Africans into cash economy - wore modern clothes, made traditional dress from imported textiles Women did most of domestic/agricultural work (men became migrant labourers in cities) 1948 - Reserves produced 50% of their food Afrikaner culture and politics 1899-1902 - British fought the 2 Afrikaner republics 1910 Union - Jan Smuts tried to unify white pop (some Afrikaners resentful) 1913 - JBM Hertzog founded Afrikaner National Party 1924 - Hertzog won election (got bilingualism in civil service, made Afrikaans national language (alongside English) and made teaching of both languages compulsory in white schools) 1934 - Hertzog and Smuts created United Party (Depression had undermined power) D.F. Malan split from Hertzog to re-found National Party 1920s/30s - Afrikaner culture celebrated (centenary of Great Trek in 1938) Afrikaners created communities in suburbs 1948 - Afrikaner vote significant (seen as a volk with language, religion, culture) The influence of Britain 1948 - SA self-governing part of Empire (Gov-general in Cape Town, Westminster-style parliament) People of British descent were 40% of pop British investors dominated mines/industries, British sports highly popular - strong links made SA join WWII on Britain’s side 1948 - British ties got strong Afrikaner reactions - wanted republic Why was the National Party victorious in 1948? 1948 election important turning point 1938 - Afrikaner votes split equally between United Party and National Party 1939 - Parliament voted to support British war effort, Hertzog resigned (left Smuts in control) National Party mobilised Afrikaners for future SA The growth of Afrikaner nationalism From 1939 - Idea of Afrikaner volk became politically important 1918 - Broederbond founded (selected Afrikaner white men gave direction for Christian, nationalist, republican outlook) Broederbond initiated Economic Movement to promote Afrikaner business Calvinist Dutch Reformed Churches supported idea of autonomous volk - blacks/whites had different roles in God’s plan (inter-marriage would sabotage divine designs) Many Afrikaner nationalists opposed joining WWII 1939 - Ossewabrandwag launched by Afrikaners (anti-war movement influenced by German facism - had 300k members) International context Pre-WWII - Legal discrimination/segregation common (eg. in British colonies, Jim Crow laws) War against facism/Holocaust led to concern for universal human rights (colonial empires dismantled) White South Africans were convinced they stood for Western, Christian, anti-Communist values (had support from US southern states) The 1948 election Post-war - Smuts implemented liberal policies (not liberal himself but pragmatist - willing to facilitate more black workers if needed) Health Minister Henry Gluckman advocated NHS style health service for all (segregated) Afrikaner nationalists harnessed everyday racism to promote the swart gevaar (black danger) Opposed oorstrooming (flooding) of Africans into cities for jobs Malan had most support in countryside - spread idea Africans streamed to cities and made labour shortage for farmers Accused Smuts of being sympathetic to blacks and failing to control political dangers 1948 - Malan won 38% of vote (49% to Smuts) Smuts won large majorities in English-speaking urban seats but Malan won rural constituencies (with fewer voters) by small majorities - Malan got narrow victory Malan attacked Britain, mining capital and Smuts  How was apartheid codified and implemented, 1948-59? Was believed that separate development of racial groups would ensure progress National Party used legislation in place to build upon - did everything through parliament Commissions were formed to investigate best ways to advance apartheid agenda Strengthening the National Party Priority to stay in power 1949 - 6 MPs added for whites in South West Africa (where nationalists had support) - became 5th province after SA ruled it under UN mandate Nationalists made Coloureds separate from whites (shared culture, voted for United Party) Coloured vote in Cape was protected - needed special 2/3 majority of parliament to change it 1951 - Separate Representation of Voters Act removed remaining Coloured vote with simple majority Courts decided Act was invalid without 2/3 majority - gov appointed new Afrikaner judges and packed Senate with Afrikaners 1953 - National Party increased vote from 400k to nearly 600k (outpolled United Party but didn’t have white majority) National Party now had Afrikaner majority and majority of parliamentary seats 1950s - State employment rose from 482k to 799k (majority of new employees Afrikaner) Afrikaner Nationalism and Fascism compared Similarities in racial ideology, ideas about volk, Ossewabrandwag supported Germany, opposed socialism/communism, gradually suppressed political opposition Differences - Afrikaners saw race as central to human difference but didn’t advocate genocide, certain degree of political opposition tolerated Apartheid laws National Party planners decided on new strategy for Africans - reduction of rights in white areas but benefits of fuller rights in self-governing territories Emphasis on separate development, not apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd (1901-66) Born in Netherlands, emigrated to Cape Town in 1903 Studied at Stellenbosch Uni - eventually became head of Sociology (most concerned by poor white problem) Devoted himself to Afrikaner nationalist politics 1937 - Became editor of new Transvaler newspaper (launched to win Afrikaner support) 1948 - Moved into parliament 1950-58 - Minister of Native Affairs (coordinator of apartheid) - department full of sympathetic Afrikaners, convinced Africans were most loyal to old kingdom/chiefdom Verwoerd moved National Party away from racist terms (now ‘separate development) 1951 - Bantu Authorities Act gave authority to tribal leaders in African reserves (aimed to make conservative rural African leadership into local gov who would cooperate with National Party) 1958-66 - Verwoerd was PM 1959 - Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act allowed tribal lands to become Bantustans (self-governing ethnically defined separate units - Verwoerd argued it was different form of internal decolonisation) 1966 - Verwoerd assassinated in House of Assembly in Cape Town Race laws Afrikaners concerned about inter-racial sex (historically settlers had relations with black women) 1949 Mixed Marriage Act/1950 Immorality Act - Prohibited marriage/sex by whites across races 1950 - Population Registration Act - Required everyone to be classified according to race (categories sharply defined) Group Area Acts From 1950 - Group Area Acts allowed city centre areas owned/rented by minorities to be eradicated so centre was controlled by whites (eg. Sophiatown, District Six, Cato Manor) Racist terminology Official term for blacks was ‘Native’ (rejected for pejorative meaning) - blacks preferred ‘African’ (difficult in Afrikaans as Afrikaners already used version of word) 1950s - National Party tried to use ‘Bantu’ (from Xhosa/Zulu word for people) - rejected for tie to apartheid Whites also used ‘nie-blankes’ (non-whites) - ‘black’ used instead by 1980s Sophiatown Housed 60k people (mainly African - could hold private land) - ANC President Dr Xuma lived next to poor tenants in squalid shacks Attracted Drum magazine journalists (mouthpiece of townships) - recorded racy urban lifestyle 1950 - Planning for removal began (bulldozed within 6 years despite intense resistance) Durban 1951 - Durban housed 450k (equally split Indian/African/white) Indians owned property near city centre/ in Cato Manor (next to white suburbs) Pre-1940s - Cato Manor was semi-rural 1940s - Land filled with shack settlements 1949 - Africans attacked Indians for exploiting them (142 killed/1k injured in riots) By 1965 - Shacks removed and 10ks of Africans sent to townships; 41k Indians moved away to Indian zone where they could own land (buffer between white suburbs and African township) District Six Largely Coloured residential/business area near Cape Town city centre 1966 - 60k people removed and resettled, buildings bulldozed Pass laws and education Control of space and the pass laws 1953 - Reservation of Separate Amenities Act made it legal to provide separate facilities not of equal quality Influx control (migration to cities) was central to Afrikaner nationalist policy - whites in cities were protected from cheap black labour, protest, crime Pre-1948 - Pass laws forced all African men travelling outside reserves to carry pass 1952 - Natives Abolition of Passes Act required reference book for all African adults to present on demand 1952 - Urban Areas Act gave urban rights to minority of Africans born in town/worked there for 10 years/lived there for 15 (also given to their children) Differentiated urban insiders from majority who lived on reserves - gov recognised need for stable urban workforce Africans couldn’t buy houses/land in cities/townships Pass laws ferociously policed - resented by Africans 1956 - Reference books extended to women Daily abrasive encounters with police - mostly Afrikaners but also blacks 1952 - 164,324 convictions under pass laws (1962 - 384,497) - 3m were ‘criminals’ (clogged up courts) 1946 - 1.8m urban blacks (1960 - 3.5m - more than white pop) - pass laws didn’t stop blacks moving into cities to find work Education Pre-1948 - Most African education segregated (a few went to elite mission schools) Most schools were funded by gov and managed by churches (basic primary education) 1951 census - 24% blacks recorded as literate 1953 - Bantu Education Act extended education to Africans and brought schools under state control (gov concerned by tsotsis (street youths) joining gangs instead of going to school) National Party policy makers believed it was essential for changing labour market (literacy, numeracy and linguistic ability in English/Afrikaans needed for black workforce) Verwoerd believed in basic state education for greater number (but Bantu education should prepare Africans for limited roles/opportunities) Pre-1950s - (Wealthy) Blacks who finished matric (school-leaving certificate) could go to Fort Hare Uni or a few to Cape Town/Witwatersrand 1959 - Extension of University Education Act brought Fort Hare under gov control; also planned for full segregation of white English unis and new ethnic unis to be set up The Tomlinson Report and the Bantustans Post-war - Afrikaner nationalists benefited from global growth (shaped view of Bantustans) 1955 - Commission under Prof. F.R. Tomlinson (agricultural economist at Stellenbosch Uni) reported Tomlinson believed economic development of former reserves had to be heart of apartheid Bantustans could be transformed by £100m+ investment (£7b in 2015) Recommendations: - Create class of full-time farmers to increase plot size and turn communal into private tenure (ie. push families off land to create bigger economic units) - Major funding for rural industries - Encourage private enterprise (SA/foreign) to invest in Bantustans Verwoerd rejected recommendations - whites wouldn’t support so much investment, subsidised industries would compete with urban, white businesses Bantus should develop ‘at own pace’ without outside investment Larger landholdings would encourage millions of Africans to migrate to cities for work Verwoerd believed private land ownership would undermine chiefs’ power (relied on for support) ‘Betterment’ and ‘rehabilitation’ Gov prioritised policy of betterment - cheaper but very disruptive Inter-war years - global concern about soil erosion (SA gov believed environmental degradation undermined peasant agriculture, increased poverty and drove Africans to cities) Betterment (later called rehabilitation) was strategy to intensify farming without damage Officials believed best method was to divide pastures with barbed wire into smaller paddocks (animals moved to stop overgrazing) Rural families were moved to compact villages to create/control space 1950s/60s - 1m+ forced to move to villages (some forced to sell livestock) - deeply resented 1960s - Culling abandoned due to unpopularity The inadequacies of the Bantustans Substantial new areas of white land bought to extend homelands but Bantustans still very small percentage of SA’s land area Africans would be divided into historic chieftaincies (whites remained white) - Africans perceived themselves partly as Africans (lost old identities) Political suppression and the Treason Trial Mid-1950s - Gov concerned by growing influence of Congress movement 1956 - 156 members of Congress Alliance (ANC, Indian Congress, trade unions etc) arrested in dawn raids (including most ANC leaders) Were accused of high treason (with communist ideals) and tied up in trial lasting 5 years - ANC couldn’t oppose for that time Trial brought multi-racial anti-apartheid leaders to Pretoria courtroom - used dock to speak about ideas 1961 - Accused acquitted  How did African nationalism develop, 1948-59? ANC became major organised black opposition movement - voiced radical programme of action Political opposition in 1948 1948 - No single black opposition group/no united ideology (divided by race/class/interest) National Party developed strategies to police/restrict protest 1912 - ANC established by black professionals (spurred on by Union of South Africa in 1910) Africans were excluded from equal political rights in settlement agreed with Britain and strongly opposed Natives Land Act of 1913 Difficult to unify diverse Africans/challenge white power directly ANC didn’t win mass support despite initiatives - leaders were politically cautious (hoped whites would change minds) Popular politics was expressed in fragmented movements By 1948 - Strikes, boycotts, squatters, mass rallies commonplace 1949 - Zulus attacked Indians in Durban riots Before Group Areas Act squatters/shacks were centres of dissidence - occupied land, rioted James Mpanza created movement in Johannesburg, led land occ - ‘father of Soweto’ 1946 - African miners went on big strike partly organised by Communist Party (threatened core industry - Smuts called in army/police) 1944/1949 - Buses boycotted (fares from city edges cut deep into meagre wages) The revival of the African National Congress (ANC) and the Youth League ANC successful due to organisational continuity/capacity to attract educated African elite 1940s - Gap between cautious established leaders and new generation 1944 - ANC Youth League founded (galvanised movement into radical action, inspired by anti-colonial rhetoric/confidence of African nationalists in West Africa) YL alarmed by white rhetoric - led to new phase of mass political action Initially led by lawyer Anton Lembede + A.P. Mda, Oliver Tambo, Walter Sisulu and Mandela (developed Africanist ideology) 1949 - YL launched Programme of Action (argued for confrontational approach - boycotts, passive resistance, work stoppages, mass action) - believed squatters/miners’ strike/protests showed Africans were ready Radical rhetoric attacked old leadership and white supremacy (called for African consciousness, nationalism, united people - not socialism/traditional African leadership) Africanism - band together to deal with problems facing all Africans (only Africans understand what they’re going through) African nationalists weren’t motivated by religion unlike Afrikaners 1949 - YL ousted ANC’s moderate president Dr Xuma 1952 - Albert Luthuli made president (devoutly Christian Zulu chief, more sympathetic to YL) Dec 1949 - Programme of Action adopted by ANC ANC moved from policy of concession-seeking to militant liberation organisation - informed but not dictated by Africanist ambitions Most ANC leaders (eg Mandela in 1950s) adhered to idea of non-racialism - alliances created with other activists ANC links with other organisations 1940s - Communists accepted mass support from black workers for revolution was unlikely (racial oppression too central in minds) Communists accepted 2 phase revolution - national democratic with African nationalists then socialist 1950 - National Party banned Communist Party Communists were unusual in SA - group of white/black intellectuals and black workers YL (eg. Mandela/Tambo) were unsure about alliance but became cemented Non-Africans couldn’t join ANC (formed other racial Congresses) - formed part of Congress Alliance 1953 - Liberal Party formed by whites (advocated for respect/equal rights not racial rhetoric) Liberals attracted some black support but were suspicious of ANC/communists Liberalism was largely crushed by white fears and attraction of radical African nationalism The Defiance Campaign of 1952 Volunteers broke racial restrictions (curfews/segregated facilities) to risk arrest Mandela and Yusuf Cachalia of Indian Congress were volunteers-in-chief Campaign was influenced by Gandhi’s non-violent disobedience (lived in SA 1893-1914) Johannesburg/Durban intended to be Campaign’s heart (6k of 8k arrests made in Eastern Cape cities of Port Elizabeth/East London) Case study: East London East Bank (35k living in shacks) was heart of campaign 37% of babies there died in their 1st year ANC branch was led by Alcott Gwentshe (small trader) and CJ Fazzie (militant speaker) Close to Fort Hare - YL came Jun 1952 - Campaign began with rally of 1500 (shouted ANC slogans and sang Nkosi Sikielel’ iAfrika (God Bless Africa)) Gwentshe spoke about total rejection of white rule and resulting democracy ANC wore khaki uniforms - trench coats, black berets and gold/green/black neckerchiefs July - Regular large meetings held (records from police informers who gave evidence at trials) Protestors were willingly arrested to try to overwhelm coits and make laws unenforceable Sat on white benches, urinated in white toilets, refused to pay fines - most sentenced to 1 month with hard labour More youths from gangs came to meetings - advocated violence (informer stoned/chased) Oct - Campaign split between moderate Gwentshe and radical Fazzie Riots occurred in Port Elizabeth Early Nov - Minister of Justice banned public gatherings for a month (sent armed reinforcements to stop meetings) 9 Nov 1952 - East London activists had ‘religious’ gathering Police found gathering of 800 who threw sticks/stones - ordered to disperse Charged with batons then claimed shot was fired at them so opened fire Youths formed groups to stone police and burn buildings 2 whites killed by blacks - insurance salesman in East Bank and Sister Aidan Quinlan (medical missionary) - set alight in her car (body allegedly cut up for medicine) 7 African dead and 18 seriously injured (officially) - maybe actually more than Sharpeville ANC called off Defiance Campaign - dependent on discipline/non-violence East London showed potential and dangers of defiance Outcome of Campaign was hugely important - ANC claimed membership rose from 4k to 100k ANC became involved in resisting imposition of Group Areas in Sophiatown - got good publicity Women and the ANC Some male ANC leaders had conservative/patriarchal views 1943 - Women first admitted as ANC members 1948 - Women’s League founded (expanded support in 1950s) Women were prominent in grassroots protests of Defiance Campaign 1955 - Gov announced pass laws for women as so many were moving from rural to urban areas Lilian Ngoyi led major protest against passes, collected signatures and 20k marched on gov buildings in Pretoria 1957 - Protested outside Johannesburg pass office Late 1950s - Women led resistance to forced removals in Cato Manor Rural resistance Bantu authorities/betterment triggered rural movements in late 1950s Case study: Sekhukhuneland 1957-58 - People of Sekhukuneland tried to stave off gov interference 1950s - Department of Native Affairs planned to make it a homeland (tried to appoint tribal leaders) - people deeply split Many men were migrant workers in Johannesburg/Pretoria - formed own organisations to assist with transport, finding jobs etc Some were opposed to Bantustans and concerned to keep access to urban employment - adapted ANC’s ideas to rural context Worried gov would appoint chiefs supporting betterment and cull cattle (called their organisation Sebatakgomo meaning predator among the cattle) 1957 - Gov deposed, arrested and deported paramount chief and installed cooperative men By May 1958 - 9 of men seen as collaborators beaten/stabbed to death (others burnt out of houses) Police sent in - 100s arrested (paramount chief was symbol of their identity) The Freedom Charter 1955 - Congress Alliance wrote charter of core beliefs known as Congress of the People Campaign (1000s submitted suggestions on all issues) Jun 1955 - Freedom Charter revealed at rally in Kliptown, Soweto Charter gave clear summary of principles of Congress movement - tone echoed language of global freedom movements (helped get global support) Called for fully democratic SA with fairer distribution of land/wealth - committed movement to non-racial SA and laid important foundation for future political mobilisation The Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) 1950s - ANC combined Africanist ideas of YL and non-racial Congress Alliance in a movement Group of Africanists published newsletter The Africanist - promoted idea of Africa for the Africans (biggest support among teachers - eg. Leballo and Sobukwe who became leaders) Differences among Africanists: - Thought non-Africans had too much influence in Congress movement (much of Charter’s final draft was written by multi-racial committee) - Africanists believed ANC should be led by Africans and represent African interests - Believed complete independence/freedom meant return of land to Africans - Developed Pan-Africanist ideas (1959 - Sobukwe argued for United States of Africa) - Wanted more confrontation direct action 1958 - Leadership of Transvaal ANC reelected without debate as leaders were too occupied with Treason Trial to stand for election Leballo protested and was expelled from ANC At ANC conference Luthuli compared narrow African nationalism to tribalism - Sobukwe spoke to challenge and Africanists walked out Africanists tried to form separate provincial organisations within ANC Apr 1959 - Founding convention for PAC held in Orlando (read telegrams of support from independent Ghana/Guinea) - widely reported in white/black press Some ANC felt gov let PAC organise freely to split nationalist movement - hoped PAC’s views might be closer to separate development (PAC was in fact hostile to Bantustans) Potlako Leballo (c1924-86) From Lesotho, restless/domineering figure Trained as teacher at Fort Hare/Pretoria and was in SA army in WWII War gave glimpse of world outside colonial hierarchies (allegedly fighting for human rights and democracy against fascism and racism) Was member of ANCYL - important figure in Orlando branch Robert Sobukwe (1924-78) Schooled at Healdtown (premier Methodist mission school) and Fort Hare - joined ANCYL, became student president Did so well at uni that he was appointed to academic staff of largely white Uni of Witwatersrand To secure professional position he remained in background of Johannesburg politics in mid 1950s 21 Mar 1960 - Sobukwe organised 386k to march to police stations without passes (69 killed in Sharpeville) Argued that there was only 1 human race but Africa belonged to Africans Introduction 1950s - Turbulent for SA (lots of legislation passed, NP doing better in polls) Mass opposition began to have impact Sharpeville was significant moment Gov cracked down on African movements and use police/military more Vision of apartheid was pursued - 60s were high point for apartheid Why did opposition to apartheid increase during the years 1960-61? Late 50s/early 60s - Opposition forces confident about making impact (ANC/PAC split and rural groups challenged gov) Pass laws/movement restrictions prevented Africans living/working in towns/cities (also difficult to change jobs) By 1960 - £5-£8 (over 2 weeks wages for Africans)or 5-8 weeks imprisonment for pass offence 80% of African families in Johannesburg lived on £20/month 1000 cases/day about passes went through courts Early 1960 - Protests about passes, municipal rents and prohibition on liquor sales Peaceful protest Late 50s - Congress Alliance’s ideology challenged by PAC PAC was more interested in ‘lighting the match’ than disciplined leadership/membership - wanted ill-defined idea of freedom not non-racial democracy Sobukwe (PAC leader with little political experience) focused on pass laws Sobukwe planned mass action on 21 Mar (although he knew ANC planned to start on 31 Mar) - similar to Defiance Campaign (turn up at police stations and overwhelm system with arrests - no-one knew how many were needed) ANC was disturbed by PAC’s attempt to outdo them The Sharpeville massacre and its significance After PAC’s foundation leaders tried to get grassroots support - Cape Town/Vaal Triangle (heavily industrialised area) were most organised Sharpeville was small township in Vaal Triangle - one of many major confrontations Vaal Triangle was coal mining/ISCOR (iron/steel) centre 1942 - Sharpeville founded (planned as model township with more facilities) 1956 - Bus boycott in Evaton (biggest township in area) - 15 killed 3 politicising factors: - 1958 - 10k forced to move there under Group Areas Act (little new housing, higher rents) - Areas favoured by migrant workers from Lesotho (had more insecure rights but also dependent on wages - some came illegally so pass raids increased in 1959) - 1959 - PAC branch founded in Sharpeville (able to spread word of Sobukwe’s short-notice campaign) PAC membership was only a few hundred but set up task force to encourage participation/threaten workers 20 Mar 1960 - Youths moved onto streets and stabbed policeman (police responded with baton charges/gunfire); meeting at stadium was broken up at midnight (2 protestors died) 21 Mar 1960 - 5k gathered in morning outside fence of police station - PAC asked police to arrest everyone (believed gov would suspend pass laws) Some crowd members weren’t PAC (just curious) - some gave ANC salute, some shouted PAC slogan Izwi Lethu (the land is ours) Journalists were present - thought crowd was relaxed and friendly By 1pm - Reinforcements came (200 white police with rifles, Saracen armoured cars and 200 black police with clubs) Police were commanded by aggressive Lieutenant Colonel Pienaar (not local) - police were nervous (claimed faced by angry crowd of 20k) Nyakane Tsolo (PAC leader) refused to order crowd to disperse - arrested so crowd surged forward Pienaar lined up police and ordered them to load - protestors couldn’t move back Before 2pm - Officer shouted fire (barrage at front row and people running) - 69 dead/187 injured Witnesses claimed police put stones on fence to suggest they’d been thrown - police also kicked/killed wounded Sobukwe + supporters were arrested in Orlando, Soweto but most weren’t PAC’s plan for 21 March failed except in Cape town/Vaal Triangle (but Sharpeville was reported globally - many photos taken) 1 Apr 1960 - UN Security Council passed resolution condemning Sharpeville and called for reversal of apartheid (Britain/France abstained but Britain/US supported later resolution declaring apartheid as violation of UN charter) 28 Mar - ANC organised mass pass-burning (Luthuli burnt his on front of media) ANC called for further stayaway (strike without protest) at end of March and day of mourning Other info: - Previous tensions - 1959 riots - Shutting down of shebeens (illegal speakeasies) caused violence - Lack of entertainment/education for young people (high proportion of population) - easily got involved in protests - Police tried to kettle crowd into football field - crowd feared being shot so didn’t move Protests in Cape Town 1960 - African pop still minority but big influx post-WWII Africans in Western Cape were particularly vulnerable - gov wanted to protect Coloured jobs Most lived in townships separated from Coloureds (majority male) Jan 1960 - Philip Kgosana and Christopher Mlokoti took over Cape Town PAC branch Sobukwe spoke there about material issues (Mlokoti linked these to ills of African urban society) 21 Mar - 6k gathered in Langa township (policed refused to arrest but charged/fired like in Sharpeville) 20 died, rioting spread - protestors mounted roadblocks/patrols to stop police 25 Mar - 50% of African workforce on strike (PAC led demo in centre) 27 Mar - 95% on strike, 50k attended funeral for Langa deaths 30 Mar - Gov declared State of Emergency; 30k Africans marched from Langa to edge of CT centre (Kgosana led some to police station) White parliament was debating protests protected by police/troops Police promised Justice Minister would meet PAC if crowd dispersed Kgosana made marchers turn back (meeting with minister never happened) Kgosana was arrested when he returned later 31 March - Protest made at Cato Manor in Durban (clashes between police, protestors and people wanting to work) PAC showed commitment to peaceful confrontation Gov showed preparation to enforce authority - more determined to impose apartheid Rural rebellion: Mpondoland 1960-61 - New momentum built in rural areas Gov took control of Mpondoland’s forests (very important to rural Africans) 1950s - Silent fight for forests (people encroached on them) Mar 1960 - Rebellion began organised by Solomon Madikizela when house of Saul Mabude (advocate of betterment and advisor to Botha Sigcau (Mpondoland chief since 1938, unpopular with people who ‘sold’ them to gov) was burnt down Aims were local - reverse Bantu Authorities, allow own chiefs, stop betterment Mar-Jun - Rebels burnt down collaborating chiefs’ houses and boycotted white/Coloured trading stations 6 Jun 1960 - Rebels met at Ngquza Hill (rumour spread they would attack Sigcau’s home) Gov sent army - no instructions to disperse (tried to run to wooded valley but 11 shot/many injured) Jun - Inquest held in nearby Bizana (Durban ANC gave legal representation - Madikizela/other leaders absorbed ANC ideas, giving ANC hope about mobilising rural areas) Rebels tried to control areas over next few months - 5k arrested by police/army Nov 1960 - Rebellion quelled (23 rebels hanged for murder and Madikizela banished under police surveillance in Transvaal) The banning of political parties and the state of emergency Popular protest wasn’t widespread/militant enough to challenge white rule Black policemen helped combat crime/impose pass laws - directly suppressed mobilisation State of Emergency increased police powers (outlawed public meetings, police could detain with fear of court restriction) 1953 Public Safety Act used to arrest 1000s of opposition political leaders (required no warrants) Leaders were caught by surprise - Mandela was arrested at home before dawn while preparing for ANC stayaway/pass protest (taken to Pretoria prison with others as still involved in Treason Trial) Luthuli (ANC president) was assaulted after arrest Joe Slovo (white communist lawyer) was detained before representing families of 434 black miners who died in disaster in Free State 8 Apr - Gov passed Unlawful Organisations Act (banned parties threatening public order) - supported by white opposition United Party 9 Apr - Verwoerd shot by David Pratt (white man) after giving speech in Johannesburg Pratt was sent to psychiatric hospital (committed suicide) Verwoerd survived after recuperation - able to keep control Other info: - 1960 - National Committee of Liberation/African Resistance Movement founded (white anti-apartheid militant group) - Military/controlling laws increased as result of state of emergency Why did South Africa become a republic in 1961? NP advocated for republic when it came to power 1950s - Britain could do little to stop apartheid policy so republic wasn’t priority NP renegotiated relationship (Simonstown naval base given to SA in 1955 but British ships could still use it) Verwoerd’s aims Early 1960 - Verwoerd confident to announce white referendum on republic 1958 election gave NP 66% of parliament and 55% of white votes Verwoerd saw referendum as opportunity to rally support beyond usual NP support Was determined to represent hardline Transvalers not more moderate Cape nationalists (unhappy with aggressive leadership, arrogance and intransigence on issue of republic) Bolstered support with Broederbond (Cape stalwart Hendrik Thom replaced by Transvaal radical Dr PJ Meyer (former member of Ossewabrandwag) Meyer made head of SA Broadcasting Corporation (nationalists took control of media) Didn’t introduce TV until 1976 (couldn’t control output) - stopped influence of global news Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech Feb 1960 - Tory PM Harold Macmillan visited SA as part of month tour of Africa (1st tour of Africa/visit to SA by PM in office) Visit was to confirm decolonisation, celebrate African self-government and strengthen Commonwealth ties, keep African countries on Western democracies in Cold War Referendum was already announced before the visit - gave famous ‘wind of change’ speech Macmillan steered clear line - celebrate 50 years of Union, respond to referendum calls (aware of criticism by African/Indian leaders for visiting) Most of speech to white parliament praised SA’s achievements/beauty of countryside Noted industrial progress came from Britain (1956 - 2/3 of external investment came from Britain, 1/3 of trade with Britain) ‘Wind of change blowing across Africa’ - not intended to call for radical change but articulate conservative realism guiding gov to pursue decolonisation (began by Atlee (Labour) with India) Macmillan/de Gaulle conducted most rapid decolonisation Macmillan saw problems of aggressive defence after Suez and insurgents in Kenya/Malaya Empire costs rose and American pressure increased Most African countries achieved/promised independence under Macmillan - hoped for strong links (important markets/sites for investment) Macmillan presented African nationalism as natural - indicated whites should accept it Queried policies and implied blacks should have rights, warned against SA doing it alone Verwoerd emphasised white determination to stay in power - visit cemented idea of decolonisation through Bantustan policy Establishing the republic, 1960-61 Oct 1960 - Whites voted for republic (52% majority) Small majorities in Cape/Transvaal but large number rejected in Natal (large British pop) Black parties opposed it - done without asking majority of SA’s pop 31 May 1961 - SA became republic Office of state president became head of state (replaced Queen/Governor-General) Rand replaced British pound ‘Crown’/’royal’ replaced in statutes/names Move to republic didn’t have dramatic effect of leaving Commonwealth Leaving the Commonwealth Mar 1961 - Commonwealth Conference called to consider SA’s position Verwoerd attended with application to remain as republic (like India) Asian/African countries were against SA while apartheid was policy Britain/Australia/NZ/Rhodesia and Nyasaland supported SA New Commonwealth leaders didn't want to polarise position Verwoerd said he wouldn’t allow diplomatic representation for new African states in Pretoria Australian/British negotiators advised they couldn’t keep SA in Commonwealth SA became fully independent state Independence and South Africa’s neighbours 1953 - Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland established (dominated by white minority) Early 1960s - African nationalists believed independence was only possible if they broke from the Federation 1964 - Zambia and Malawi became independent states in Commonwealth Whites in Southern Rhodesia (1960 - 6% of pop (220k)) didn’t accept majority rule and Britain wouldn’t give independence 1965 - Ian Smith’s conservative Rhodesian Front issued Unilateral Declaration of Independence Britain/US imposed sanctions but whites traded via SA/Mozambique International relations after leaving the Commonwealth Britain still controlled neighbouring High Commission territories (Bechuanaland/Basutoland/Swaziland) - havens for SA dissidents (UK also) SA was economically/strategically important for Britain Conservative Monday Club was established after wind of change speech to debate decolonisation (wanted to support white settlers) Britain/US wanted allies against communism - NP pointed to links between ANC/SACP 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis affirmed benefits of white rule outweighed costs Sharpeville/Cape Town caused brief withdrawal of investment 1960s - Huge overseas investment (British largest investors) Ruth First (Slovo’s wife) attributed caution against apartheid to economic interests 1960s - Gold supplies were vital for Western economies (global backing for currencies) SA was major global exporter of uranium (by-product of gold mining) - essential for nuclear weapons/power stations Western powers could only stop apartheid with economic boycott 1959 - ANC first called for sanctions 1962 - UN passed resolution banning imports/exports (voluntary - some didn’t take up sanctions) 1963 - UN passed resolution advocating arms embargo so gov wasn’t supported with weapons to suppress people (voluntary but imposed by Harold Wilson in 1964) Did the ANC and PAC radicalise after 1960? Apr 1960 - ANC/PAC banned (had to rethink strategy) Couldn’t operate legally, open members had criminal proceedings Illegal to spread/quote written material Aug 1960 - State of Emergency lifted when gov thought momentum of popular protest was gone (most detainees released) - African leaders had consider how to respond Moves to armed struggle 1950s /early 1960s - Some activists used violence (1952 East London, 1959 Durban, 1960 Mpondoland) - not against whites Mpondoland rebels asked ANC for weapons to fight gov (ANC not ready - knew retaliation would be harsh) 1950s - Violence was discussed as option among activists (1960 banning made decision urgent) Armed revolutions had success in China (1940s)/Cuba (1959) and Algerian nationalists used it ANC were cautious during Treason Trial - major reason for acquittal in Mar 1961 was lawyers proving ANC didn’t want to violently overthrow the state ANC held All-in African Conference to advocate for national constitution convention (all South Africans should participate in decisions) - similar Coloured movement started in Cape Town May 1961 - ANC had 3 day stayaway for when SA became republic SACP were first to use armed struggle (Sisulu/trade unionist Moses Kotane also ANC members so all knew about it - Mandela attended secret meetings) Jun 1961 - ANC decided on armed struggle (Luthuli and Indian Congress were against) - many concerned by it Leaders believed it could become underground - Oliver Tambo + others were in exile The ANC and uMkhonto weSizwe 1961 - MK was set up (not linked to ANC or SACP) - led by Mandela (ANC) and Slovo (CP) Done to protect ANC against repression and didn’t fully agree with armed struggle Communist govs gave money/training (1961 - 5 men sent to China to learn guerilla tactics) Regional commands set up - targets were communication posts/power units (no loss of life) 16 Dec 1961 - 1st major act of sabotage (Dingaan’s Day - public holiday to celebrate Boer victory of Zulus in 1838; also Luthuli’s return from Norway - won Nobel Peace Prize) The PAC and Poqo PAC used underground organisation - eg. among migrant workers in Cape Town Focus on political education through small meetings in townships Mau Mau in Kenya was attractive model (for fear given to whites not strategies) Leballo/Kgosana went into exile - PAC tried to establish new HQ in Lesotho 1961 - Poqo formed (like MK) - migrant worker movement with little central PAC control PAC cells spread to other Western Cape towns/Eastern Cape Cells planned to blow up trains, kill Kaiser Matanzima (leader of Transkei homeland) 1962 - Paarl march led to 2 whites dead and 5 protestors 1963 - Poqo staged Mbhashe Bridge killings (white family in caravan killed) Poqo wasn’t selective of non-human targets (but few whites killed) Killings were well-publicised - seen as African savagery by white press 1960s - 62 Poqo men hanged after trials (also 23 Mpondo rebels, 9 Cato Manor and 7 ANC/MK) ANC/PAC had no capacity for sustained armed struggle - no physical base, little training, little global support, repressive power of state 1962 - Mandela arrested after travelling abroad for 6 months and working underground 1963 - MK HQ (small farm in Rivonia north of Johannesburg) was raided - most leaders tried The Rivonia Trial and its significance for Nelson Mandela 1963-64 - Mandela/MK leaders tried in Johannesburg accused of recruiting fighters, attempting to commit sabotage, having communist links and soliciting money from foreign states Mandela gave resounding speech - explained reasons for armed struggle Accused were defended by sympathetic white lawyers - led by communist Bram Fischer Prosecutor called for death penalty but judge gave life imprisonment Black ANC leaders were sent to Robben Island (where Sobukwe was) 1960s - Leaders became isolated (limited censored contact with outside world) 1965-1984 - Joe Modise led MK (Slovo was in exile but still major strategist) The impact of exile and imprisonment on the ANC and PAC 1960 - Tambo (ANC deputy president) went into exile to salvage movement (driven by activist Ronald Segal to Botswana) Tambo travelled in Europe/Africa - addressed UN (recognised PAC/ANC as political organisations) and focused on plight of political prisoners - UN made resolution calling for release Made trip to USSR - secured funding (USSR made biggest contribution in 1960s/early 70s) End of 1963 - Few active African leaders living freely in SA (very difficult for anything to happen) The global Anti-apartheid Movement in the 1960s 1960 - Anti-apartheid Movement (AAM) founded in London Global movement against apartheid - included British Anglicans who worked in SA (Trevor Huddleston served in Sophiatown, vice-president 1961-81, president 1981-94; Ambrose Reeves (wrote about Sharpeville) was Bishop of Johannesburg, 1949-61) Also included Labour/Liberal politicians and other activists 1959 - Boycott on SA products (gathered pace after Sharpeville) - supported by Guardian/Observer Tambo didn’t participate formally in AAM but met regularly with activists 1963 - ES Reddy (Indian working at UN) became 1st secretary of Special Committee against Apartheid Sweden/US/Canada/Netherlands also housed movements Boycotts/Anti-Apartheid News had some success but not widespread - sport important new area 1961 - SA stopped sending teams to Commonwealth Games 1962 - Dennis Brutus formed SA Non-Racial Olympic Committee (successful with external support in excluding SA from 1964 Games) 1963 - SA excluded from international football by FIFA 1970 - Proposal to send all-black team to World Cup rejected 1960s - All SA teams segregated (only whites represented SA) - visiting teams must also be 1968 - Basil D’Oliveira selected for SA cricket tour (born in Cape Town but emigrated to England in 1960 as he was Coloured) England selectors excluded him (‘his style of play was unsuitable for SA conditions’) Received 20k letters of support and some MCC resignations D’Oliveira was selected when other player was injured but Vorster forbid tour (‘team of the AAM’) What factors strengthened apartheid or ‘separate development’ in the years 1960-68? 1960s - Secure white political authority, quick economic growth (mostly benefits for whites but some for blacks) Blacks temporarily accepted reality of white power 1966 - Verwoerd murdered by Greek parliamentary messenger (confined to psychiatric hospital) Death had little impact on policy/white support (NP sufficiently entrenched) Replaced by BJ Vorster (tough Minister of Justice responsible for security legislation) Economic recovery 1950-73 - World economy grew (SA had growth of 4.6%/year, 5%+/year in 1960s - faster than Europe but slower than other MICs) 1960s - Still problems (dependent on mining/agriculture for exports, low levels of productivity/skill shortages prevented diversification, lack of investment in education) The domestic economy Manufacturing/agriculture benefited most 1951-75 - employment in manufacturing rose from 855k to 1.6m (mostly black); Africans in white collar work rose from 75k to 420k; 300k to 400k in gold mining (but 80% were migrant workers from outside SA) Colour bar remained in law (certain jobs white only, blacks couldn’t control whites at work) Construction industry: - 1950s/60s - Africans moved from slums/shacks to townships - State built lots of cheap homes (1946 - 10k built in Johannesburg; 1965 - 62k built) - New township Mdantsane near East London housed 70k in 12k new family dwellings - 1951 - Native Building Workers Act allowed Africans to be used to build African houses (paid far less than white) - townships built more quickly/cheaply, provided work Native Affairs offices, schools, hospitals etc used more Africans for work Africans became significant consumers of goods - African market identified (heavy advertising in magazines/newspapers) Companies/retailers needed African sales personnel Financial services was expanding market 1960s - African per capita income rose by 23% (big increase but low to begin with); pop rose from 11m to 15m (total pop 16m to 22m) Wages of industrial workers rose by 50% NP still wanted to reduce African numbers in cities (make them migrant workers) 1968 - 700k prosecutions for pass offences (almost 2x compared to 1960) 1960s - Africans in cities rose by 1.5m to 6m (many didn’t have rights but risked it) Tomlinson argued only huge investment in homelands would stop urbanisation - Verwoerd refused 1960 - White emigration exceeded immigration 1960s - Overall increase of 250k white immigrants NP uneasy about non-Afrikaner immigration (could undermine electoral majority) but English-speakers voted in numbers for them Whites brought skills, capital and numbers (white birth rate was falling) 1921 - 22% of pop white (peak - 17% by 1968) 1960s - White incomes rose by 50% (12x black incomes) 1960 - SA made 60k cars (195k in 1970) White per capita car ownership was 4th in world (car for every 3 people - Africans owned 1 for 100) Whites lived in suburbs and commuted - Africans relied on public transport Other info: - 1948 - 43.2% of management Afrikaner (1960 - 68.1%) - 1948 - 1% mining Afrikaner (1964 - 10%) - 1948 - 6% manufacturing/construction Afrikaner (1964 - 10%) - 1948 - 16% professional Afrikaner (1964 - 27%) - 1948 - 6% finance Afrikaner (1964 - 21%) - White income rose by 50% during 1960s - Gold grew by 80% in 1960s - Britain/US did very well from SA - no reason to sever ties because of apartheid - 1980 - 10% had 58% of wealth, 40% had 6% of wealth The burgeoning townships and African women New townships became base for urban, less politicised culture Witwatersrand townships had church organisations (especially for women), football clubs etc Stokvels (saving clubs) were common - group contributed and received payout in turn (able to buy larger items/for emergencies - avoided men spending money on alcohol) 1965 - Sociologist Leo Kuper published An African Bourgeoisie (found that urban Zulus were urban consumers - teachers, white collar workers etc) Kuper showed rapid growth new African middle class with sport, dancing, churches etc Cut across apartheid ideas - book banned in SA 1950s/60s - African women had freedom from rural patriarchal society Women could work as teachers, nurses, domestic servants, in factories or informal jobs (washing etc.) End of 1960s - 342 African girls passed matric out of 3k (but still new class of skilled women, broader determination to express freedoms) 1951 - Drum magazine launched (articles/photos + fashion, bathing black beauties, Agony Aunt etc) Social freedoms weren’t rewards of apartheid but gains in spite of it 1960s growth allowed for political peace Apartheid alcohol restrictions Until 1962 - Purchase of manufactured liquor and sale of home-brewed beer by Africans banned 1961 - 300k prosecuted under liquor laws (most hated after pass laws) African women resented monopoly of sales by municipal beer halls (from which gov tried to finance township development) Women brewers used stokvels/community gatherings for homemade sorghum beer Liquor industry favoured deracialising laws to expand market Conservative politicians feared violence/crime (Church was against it) Independent Order of the True Templars was largest urban African association (temperance group) 1962 - Restrictions lifted Developing the Bantustans 1959 Bantu Self-Government Act began process of homelands 10 Ethno-linguistic groups identified by gov would have own gov/bureaucracy/infrastructure Dec 1963 - Transkei Legislative Assembly opened in Umtata (1st self-governing homeland) Transkei was largest area of African settlement - Kaiser Mataazima served as chief (ambitious, well-educated (with Eastern Cape nationalists, supported policy - believed it was only option) NP required elections before self-gov (opposition Democratic Party led by Chief Victor Poto won in Transkei - Matanzima (with gov's help got chiefs appointed to assembly without election to ensure control by Transkei National Independence Party) Transkei got substantial funding - model for homeland development (bureaucracy/healthcare/education quickly expanded - rural areas previously starved of central gov investment) White/Coloured trading stations were bought by homeland gov agencies and given to Africans African businessmen set up retail outlets in rural towns Similar processes happened in KwaZulu, Bophuthatswana and Lebowa (Sekhukhuneland before) Diplomatic ties 1960s - SA became more isolated in Africa (new independent countries didn’t want to engage with NP) 1963 - Organisation of African Unity formed (independent African states) - initiated procedures against SA SA was protected by SW Africa under direct rule, Rhodesia under white rule and Mozambique/Angola (Portuguese colonies) 1966 - Vorster became PM (offered trade relations/technical training/economic advice to win friends in Africa) Pretoria wanted to expand African trade, cut off ANC bases, stifle criticism Botswana/Lesotho/Swaziland all economically dependent on SA (10ks migrant workers) - had to maintain connection 1967 - Malawi ministers visited Pretoria to build strong economic relationship (poor, high migration to Zimbabwe, president Hastings Banda adopted conservative approach) Western diplomacy continued despite AAM/UN pressure Japan became important trading partner - built car factories in SA British/German/American companies were well established in SA (advertised heavily) Booming economy was of interest to Western companies - minerals/gold/uranium/coal SA was important for fight against communism - needed to maintain relations Vorster’s use of police powers Vorster oversaw increase in police powers Police had legal authority to detain suspects without trial for up to 180 days 1967 - Terrorism Act allowed suspects to be detained indefinitely 1968 - John Vorster Square opened (new central police HQ in Johannesburg - 2 floors for interrogation) Torture/disfigurement/sustained abuse used to gain info from suspects - kept there for weeks/months 8 detainees died there Sources (p314) 6: Published year after - more time to gather information but memory worse Book “No signs of hostility” Anglican bishop - anti-apartheid, focuses on morals, less on fact? “Agony of South Africa” “The crowd were lacking in that respect and humility which the police apparently expect from their African fellow-citizens” 7: Published day after - limited information, only from government channels Newspaper report (Guardian - anti-apartheid) “Screaming”, “Africans yelled at the police ‘Cowards’ and ‘Kill the white men’”, “barrage of stones” Introduction 1960s - Damaging decade for black opposition groups (ANC/PAC/CP banned) State was more confident - burgeoning economy, continued NP majority Verwoerd was assassinated but foundations for apartheid laid 1968 - Black resistance options limited - student movement took up struggle New black identity created - consciousness led to explosive responses from students in 1970s Late 1960s - Black opposition could rely on global antipathy (AAM) National resources crises/disturbance in townships/Party controversies hampered attempts to impose apartheid 1968-83 - Developments led whites to doubt possibility of apartheid 1984 - Difficult situation - apartheid alternatives necessary What was black consciousness and how did it influence the Soweto uprising? Black consciousness was major force in SA - most important in 1976 when students protested against use of Afrikaans in school Steve Biko and the South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) African higher education in the 1960s 1959 - Extension of University Education Act segregated unis Late 1960s - New momentum of opposition developed in unis NP was keen to segregate higher education fully ‘Bantu education’ was criticised - designed to limit African elite’s aim to join common society but extended higher education for black people Nationalists realised whites couldn’t provide all skills required for economic development - new homelands needed officials/professionals to function as self-governing territories Aimed to create ethnic unis which encouraged African languages and identification with homelands - African higher education quickly expanded Post-1959 Act - Africans sent to Uni of the North (Turfloop) - became melting pot Late 1960s - Unis became politicised (met radical Christian/black American ideas) 1960s - 2/3 of Africans were Christian (2m in African independent churches) US civil rights success, militant Christianity of MLK and black power slogans came to SA 1966 - Bobby Kennedy (JFK’s brother) visited SA at NUSAS’ (Student union) invitation - gave resounding/well-publicised speeches at whites campuses and met Albert Luthuli Steve Biko and SASO Biko - Medical student at Natal Uni, attended NUSAS/UNi Christian Movement congresses NUSAS was vehicle for liberal/non-radical expression but dominated by whites 1967 - Biko led black delegation at NUSAS Congress at Rhodes Uni (growing group, needed own movement) Rhodes Uni forbid blacks staying on campus/using facilities - black students asked for meeting to be suspended/moved to township but white delegations accepted situation 1968-69 - Incident helped formation of black movement Jul 1969 - SA Students’ Organisation (SASO) founded at Turfloop with Biko as president New SA resistance phase born - Africanist ideas with black/liberation theology, US black power Black consciousness argued that blacks should lead themselves not led by whites Whites were ‘claiming monopoly on intelligence/moral judgement and setting pattern/pace for realisation of black man’s aspirations’ Blacks needed to rethink societal position and liberate own minds Black consciousness More intellectual orientation less organised political movement Aimed to ensure blacks were self-defined - word black was challenge (nie-blanke normally used) Black probably came from US but was also older term in African languages - black aimed to kill off ‘Bantu’ (went beyond ‘African’ used by ANC/PAC) Some Coloureds/Indians identified with black movement - participated at some unis Turfloop/Fort Hare made activists central to protest politics - apartheid unis gave the opportunity White students tried to keep contact with SASO - no end to communication Early 1970s - Some SASO leaders detained (still had campus presence - influenced/controlled Student Representative Councils) 1974 - FRELIMO (Mozambican Liberation Front) ended Portuguese colonial rule (1.2k attended rally at Turfloop shouting Viva Frelimo and Freedom - 700 gathered on sports ground and sang Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika) SASO held march/rally in Durban, ignoring gov ban - leadership had moved from ideological mobilisation to direct confrontation By 1972 - Black Consciousness Movement/Black People’s Convention launched Activists drew on Africanist heritage of PAC but were careful to distance themselves from it PAC was migrant worker group - black consciousness was students/youth Early 1970s - Independent African states had military coups, dictators etc (black consciousness didn’t use Africa for inspiration) Biko didn’t focus on African traditions and directly attacked idea of homelands Black consciousness looked to future 1972 - Student president Abraham Onkgopotse Tiro allowed to speak at Turfloop graduation Attacked uni for poor facilities, discrimination against staff and inequalities in SA generally Not most radical speech but given in front of entire uni - expelled by Afrikaner rector Black consciousness groups helped launch community/self-help groups Newspapers (eg. The World in Soweto) increased coverage of emerging politics - literacy ↑ Mar 1973 - Gov decided SASO was too dangerous - banned leaders eg. Biko Black consciousness tolerated before as it seemed to have potential for reinforcing apartheid Remaining SASO leaders arrested 1975 - SASO 9 went on trial (secured high profile for ideas - snag freedom songs/raised fists) SASO wasn’t illegal so press could quote them Biko outlined black consciousness philosophy when giving evidence for defence Protests by white students 1968 - US/European students staged protests against Vietnam War/social issues etc 1968 - African radical Archie Mafeje appointed to Cape Town Uni as lecturer in Anthropology Gov felt this was direct challenge - threatened withdrawal of funding if not rescinded (council capitulated) White radical students organised mass meeting/sit-in NUSAS campaigned for segregated education with confrontational protests 1972 - Mass gathering on steps of Anglican cathedral in Cape Town broken up by police The mobilisation of school children 1975 - Protest momentum moved to schools (high schools quickly expanding) 1950-75 - 1m to 3.5m+ Africans in school (280k at secondary) 1972-76 - 12.6k to 34k in Soweto high schools High pressure on staff/buildings - Soweto had classes of 60+ Schools became place of political potential - receptive to black consciousness Soweto gangs (tsotsis) were violent to high school students (minority) - faced stabbings if challenged gangs Students faced gov, gangs and parents (uneasy about militancy) By 1976 - Self-defence units formed against gangs Tough world explains collective consciousness - mid-1970s Soweto events were turning point in apartheid/resistance The Soweto uprising, its significance and and suppression 1974 - Transvaal Bantu Education Dept expanded teaching in Afrikaans to African schools (Afrikaans/English compulsory at all high schools) - wanted Africans to learn more in Afrikaans Decision was hated - oppressor’s racist language English was global language of advancement/black consciousness Language policy was enforced by conservative deputy minister Andries Treurnicht End of May 1976 - SASM tried to organise protest boycotts 16 Jun - Student demo tried to march Orlando stadium (2k met by 50 police at Orlando West school) - stones thrown, police released dogs/fired, a few dead/wounded Pupils attacked gov buildings, killed 2 officials and threw up barricades - anything related to ‘system’ 138 killed in first few days of protest Treurnicht kept policy and denied issues - pupils boycotted, tried to destroy African local gov buildings and pushed community for support 17 Jun - 300 Wits Uni students marched, Turfloop students tried to burn Afrikaans dept 18 Jun - Official buildings/shops/liquor stores in Alexandra township attacked Aug - Soweto Students’ Representative Council formed Scholars tried to trigger stayaways by workers (limited success) Boycotted white-owned shops, threatened vengeance against ‘traitors of Black Struggle’ 16 Jun - Litter collection ceased so taken up by students Winnie Mandela/Dr Nthato Motlana formed Black Parents’ Association to organise funerals (became political occasions) Gov inquiry calculated 575 died in Soweto revolt/aftermath - most violent state repression since Sharpeville (attracted global attention) Students weren’t armed but were prepared to use violence against property (sabotage was espoused by ANC in 1961) Police shootings were most significant cause of death Apr 1977 - Local admin raised rents (lost money from burnings of buildings/closing of beer halls) - Soweto Student Council organised mass demo, burnt offices of Urban Bantu Council and got postponement of rent rises - council resigned 1976-77 - 4k youths fled country to avoid arrest (some were street youths not students - recruited by MK as not afraid of death) Only coherent external organisation was ANC (based in Lusaka) Student leaders were imprisoned on Robben Island with Mandela/Sisulu - debates took place (most black consciousness activists moved to ANC) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela (formerly Winnie Mandela) Born in 1936, brought up in Transkei Family was educated Eastern Cape Methodists 1953 - Moved to Johannesburg to train as social worker and worked at Soweto hospital (largest African one) 1957 - Met Nelson and married in 1958 Was harassed by police after Mandela’s imprisonment - restricted visits to Robben Island Dismissed from job - no income 1969 - Detained under Terrorism Act, interrogated and put in solitary confinement for 6 months before being charged Accused of working for ANC - only released after 17 months Aug 1976 - Imprisoned without charge for 5 months after involvement in Black Parents’ Assoc Became popular with Soweto youth May 1977 - Banished to remote township in the Free State (to isolate politically) Played major role in keeping Mandela’s name in public eye - attracted media attention herself Associated herself with Soweto student revolt and foundation of UDF The impact of the death of Steve Biko, 1977 1973 - Gov banned Steve Biko (made to live in King William’s Town in Eastern Cape, movements restricted, banned from attending political meetings) Was difficult to be involved in wider movement but still in local/regional black consciousness Kept profile with writing - some published/secretly circulated Donald Woods (white editor of The Daily Dispatch, liberal East London paper) took up ideas Aug 1977 - Biko left King William’s Town (arrested, interrogated and badly beaten) Few weeks later - Rushed 1000km to prison hospital in Pretoria 12 Sep 1977 - Died Police claimed it was because of hunger strike - Woods challenged cover-up and alleged brutality (produced convincing evidence) Provoked international disapproval Funeral was attended by 10k+ (white foreigners/ambassadors came) How did the ANC strengthen its position after the reverses of the early 1970s? ANC struggled to remain relevant to ordinary people while in exile Acting president Tambo was responsible for keeping up profile Difficulties in exile Early 1960s - ANC established offices abroad (London was important) Exiles settled in Zambia/Tanzania (Tambo based in Lusaka from 1967) Zambia’s president Kenneth Kaunda was sympathetic and was cheaper/easier to work there MK moved to Zambia - base for 1967/68 Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns 1967 - 50 trained MK guerrillas (including Chris Hani) crossed Zambezi and tried to make route through Zimbabwe to SA (couple of skirmishes - 1 detachment destroyed by Rhodesian gov forces, others retreated to Botswana) 1968 - Sipolilo campaign was longer but had heavy losses Zambian gov was worried about role as base for armed struggle - possible SA retaliation 1969 - Lusaka Manifesto adopted by African states reiterating antipathy to apartheid Kaunda demanded Tambo find new bases for MK Hani issued memo with other young MK members accusing ANC leadership of careerism and becoming middle-class globe-trotting bureaucrats (also critical of MK leader Joe Modise - undemocratic, arbitrary and preoccupied with mysterious business enterprises) Internal recognition and external legitimacy MK leadership was hostile to Hani accusations Tambo had major crisis in organisation - took responsibility for military failings Youthful rebels had tribunal and were expelled from ANC 1969 - Tambo called conference in Morogoro, Tanzania (resigned as acting president but re-elected without opposition) - able to address issues more easily ANC allowed members of all races - no longer 4 racial congresses Movement adopted ‘strategy and tactics’ doc - affirmed armed struggle but stressed more need for political leadership/education/unity (not send in big armed detachments but infiltrate individuals to resurrect movement on the ground) Hani and rebels were reinstated 1980s - New approach finally developed with emergence of mass protest Small military contingent was destroyed entering Namibia - no more incursions 1975 - Group in ANC publicly said movement should stay African (expelled) Tennyson Makiwane (expelled Africanist, senior in ANC external affairs dept) - called decision authoritarian, critical of failure to reorganise within SA Expelled Africanists started rival ANC group - attacked Tambo/CP (soon dissolved - some returned to ANC) Makiwane went to Transkei to work for Matanzima’s gov (assassinated in 1980) Late 1970s - Left-wing white exiles in England tried to revive/take over SACTU (trade union movement linked to ANC) - wanted to focus on working class mobilisation - expelled Oliver Tambo and the ANC Holding together politicised exile movement in different place with ideological arguments was difficult Tambo was quiet but determined to listen/lead, deeply conscious of need for unity Held non-racialist view - worked with exiles from all SA communities Recognised AAM’s value (although had independence and had different activists) Knew importance of international solidarity and finding ways of putting ANC back into SA politics PAC had no comparable figure The global anti-apartheid movement and international boycotts No single global anti-apartheid organisation 1960s - AAM launched boycotts by arts unions/guilds as well as sporting/economic sanctions Boycotts were partial/uneven but SA became isolated by them in 1970s 1980 - UN passed resolution for comprehensive cultural/academic boycott of SA (supported by ANC/AAM) Sporting boycotts 1969-70 - Stop the Seventy Tour campaign (after D’Oliveira crisis) Targeted SA rugby tour of Britain/Ireland (tour disrupted but not called off) Peter Hain (later UK Labour minister) organised mass demos/pickets/pitch invasions Gordon Brown participated in Edinburgh 1970 - SA cricket tour to England cancelled; SA gov allowed NZ rugby tour including Maori players 1973 - White SA rugby team planned to tour NZ (Halt All Racist Tours campaign got it cancelled) 1974 - SA expelled from international test cricket; British Lions toured SA 1977 - Gleneagles Agreement signed by Commonwealth (discouraged playing SA in any sport) 1981 - SA tour to NZ caused protest Cricket/rugby boycotts upset white SA but didn’t stop international contacts Economic boycotts 1970 - Tory Edward Heath elected as PM (withdrew Britain from 1964 arms boycott) Britain was SA’s most important trading partner Tories opposed idea of SA’s economic isolation 1970s - Tories developed ‘constructive engagement’ (overseas investors should use influence to improve conditions/wages for black SA workers) SA liberals agreed economic growth would reveal apartheid weaknesses and lead to demise - as demand for workers increased, it would be difficult to control urbanisation Companies would need more black skilled workers - gov would realise rules had to be relaxed Tories/Confederation of British Industry strongly supported constructive engagement AAM/allies advocated for systematic disinvestment/boycotts - argued continued economic engagement was business as usual (foreign companies could make large profits from cheap black workers) Believed comprehensive sanctions/internal protest would make SA change policies AAM worked with British unions to inform about conditions of black workers - to win support 1972 - World Council of Churches sold holdings in companies with interests in SA  What problems did the National Party face within South Africa, 1974-83? 1980s challenges.docx Late 1970s - Turbulent for NP (1973 oil crisis ended 60s boom; faced opposition on several fronts; internal divisions) Political unrest and opposition Trade union activity Blacks made up majority of miners extracting gold/uranium ore (most valuable exports in 1970s) as well as coal for power stations Most whites had black domestic servants - lived in back rooms 1.5m blacks worked on farms (3x+ than in mines) By 1976 - 1.6m blacks working in manufacturing industries/factories/workshops Black workers had few rights but could still disrupt economy/white wealth 1960s - SACTU (SA Congress of Trade Unions - linked to ANC) - faltered under gov repression, only reached 50k members (few important unions survived) 1970s/80s - Unions became issue for gov 1972 - PUTCO (ran buses from townships to workplaces) workers went on strike 1973 - Zulu migrant workers living in compounds at Durban brick factory withdrew from work (spread to 150 other factories) Ex-unionists/white student activists built new unions in cities (independent from SACTU and white unions) - not immediately banned (focused on wages/working conditions not politics) Tried to develop democratic control and avoid confrontations 1974 - Natal textile strikes targeted by gov Majority of blacks weren’t unionised - fertile field for unions Feb 1974 - Sweet, Food and Allied Workers Union founded (SA was major producer of sugar) Apr - Metal and Allied Workers Union founded From 1976 - Food and Canning Workers Union expanded in Cape Town 1979 - Food workers at Italian factory went on strike for union recognition/higher wages (brought together Coloured women and African migrant men) Food and Canning Union helped organise boycott - supported by all racial groups (strike won) By 1979 - New unions formed FOSATU (non-racial, democratic etc) The re-emergence of ANC support in South Africa Students were aware of ANC/non-racialism (instead of black consciousness) Winnie Mandela/ex-prisoners from Robben Island sought to influence new generation 1979 - COSAS (Congress of SA Students) founded to coordinate national protests (1st leader Ephrarim Mogale was secret ANC supporter - got COSAS to commit to Freedom Charter) 1980 - Sunday Post launched Release Mandela campaign (won wide support) By 1980 - School protests (inspired by ‘Charterism’) fought against racially unequal education - closed black schools Late 1970s/early 1980s - Civic organisations founded in townships/rural communities to fight against councils/rent and organised equal education/services and contested forced removals Strike at Wilson Rowntree sweet factory in East London was organised by SAAWU (SA Allied Workers Union - openly Charterist, recruited youths to join MK) Helped mobilise broader opposition in East London, revived deeply rooted ANC support Liberal opposition in South Africa SA liberalism had deep roots but limited support 1953 - Liberal Party founded by middle class, educated white activists (staunchly against apartheid) 1959 - 11 liberal MPs in United Party formed Progressive Party (only Helen Suzman held seat in 1961 election) Opposed apartheid but advocated restricted, qualified franchise for blacks (committed to working in white parliament) Progressives were economic liberals - argued gov intervened too much in protecting whites in job market (morally wrong and slowed economic growth) 1974 - Progressives increased seats from 1 to 7 and white vote to 59k (from 40k in 1966) 1974 - United Party only won 41 seats with 363k votes UP represented conservative views of English speakers - lost direction and only argued for softer segregation which still ensured white power By 1978 - Progressive Federal Party became main opposition (UP had splintered) PFP used Frederik van Zyl Slabbert to break into Afrikaner pop (young/charismatic) 1974 - Slabbert won seat in Cape Town (1979 - became PFP leader) 1981 - Slabbert helped win 19% of vote and 26 seats Liberal front appeared to be making gains Slabbert convinced Party to support universal/non-racial franchise - envisaging black majority Reached out to black leaders (eg. Buthelezi) to support moderate settlement - too radical for voters and support ebbed Helen Suzman (1917-2009) Epitomised white SA liberal politics Daughter of Lithuanian Jewish immigrants, educated at Johannesburg Catholic convent and Wits Uni (studied economics) Gave up uni lecturing to go into politics - became UP MP for Houghton (wealthy constituency in Johannesburg) Founding member of Progressive Party (1961-74 - only MP) Suzman used position to criticise economic policy/racial discrimination - highlighted corruption, human rights breaches and attacked security legislation/police violence Visited Mandela on Robben Island - took up cause to improve prisoner conditions Won strong Western support due to economic views/focus on human rights Force between NP nationalism and ANC radicalism Suzman was against armed struggle - accepted Progressives would work within white politics More radical whites in student politics/unions saw parliament as too racist/restrictive Troubles in the Bantustans 1970s - NP continued with Bantustan policy Vorster increased spending - assisted by tax revenue from gold mining Independence given to homelands - Transkei (1976), Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979) and Ciskei (1981) - not recognised by other countries as very dependent on SA for revenues but SA gov tried to present them as viable states 1970-75 - Homeland revenues rose from R120m to R520m (some of budget spent on social costs of apartheid, but most on expanding bureaucracies of Bantustans - lots of waste) SA built 10 new homeland capitals and kept existing Pretoria (executive/civil service), Cape Town (legislature) and Bloemfontein (judiciary) Failed top down projects proliferated Ciskei received own redundant international airport not far from East London’s Early 1970s - 50%+ of budgets went on education/roads/health/agriculture Gov wanted to expand rural education more rapidly to discourage urban migration 5 new unis created - major investment, became crucibles for oppositional politics Money poured into irrigation projects - promised new beginning for smallholder farmers Gov believed homeland agriculture would raise rural income and keep people out of cities Rents/services subsidised in KwaZulu - cheaper than SA townships Resistance Buthelezi refused to hold elections/accept independence in KwaZulu 1970s - Buthelezi criticised gov and opened space for opposition - gained access to national media Kangwane (Swazi homeland) became centre for rural underground ANC activism Homelands were carefully policed to avoid becoming MK bases (unlike in Mozambique/Zimbabwe) Some homeland leaders believed new status meant they could negotiate for more rights 1973 - Met at Umtata (agreed long term aim of 1 black nation - possibly federal) Pretoria needed them but couldn’t control Leaders couldn’t get wider support - black consciousness/radical popular struggles after Soweto polarised African politics Buthelezi offered broad national leadership but was rejected by black consciousness activists/ANC supporters Late 1970s - Buthelezi was in open conflict with new political forces, embraced ethnic nationalist strategy (still survived politically to be figure in post-apartheid gov) Many homeland govs used same repression as SA gov - police/military expenditure grew quickly, supported by Pretoria Homeland unis were centres of black consciousness/political dissidence Eastern Cape schools were recruiting grounds for MK 1980s - Turfloop student council renamed campus Lusaka (Zambian capital was ANC HQ) After 1976 - Political struggle moved to cities but homelands still had opposition against Bantustan leaders/SA gov Ethnicity Gov referred to regional groups as tribes - believed tribal affiliation was more important for Africans than ideological affiliation/nationalism Lucas Mangope of Bophuthatswana/Mangosothu Buthelezi tried to mobilise ethnic movements to support homelands An assessment of homeland policy New money poured into homeland admin without sufficient oversight created setting for patronage/personal power/corruption Admins couldn’t be voted out - politics revolved around access to new jobs/state assets Kaiser Matanzima/brother George in Transkei directly benefited financially - family bought out white traders/hotel keepers (central part of homeland policy) 1980 - Wild Coast Sun hotel/casino developed on Transkei coast (Transkei gov paid off) Balkanisation led to reaction against political ethnicity/tribalism - reinforced African nationalism Black leaders repudiated ethnic/regional politics which bedevilled Africa post-independence NP had significant African support for some aspects of homeland policy - some African politicians prepared to work with it (strong support for conservative rural chiefs) Homeland policy shored up apartheid but very expensive/wasteful of public funds By 1980s - Bantustans centres for political opposition against apartheid National Party division and scandal 1966-78 - PM Vorster secure in power (won 1970/74 elections) NP had wide English and Afrikaans support Cracks appeared in NP - verligte (progressive) and verkrampte (conservative) groups Late 1970s - Die Burger (established Cape nationalist paper) advocated that black urbanisation was inevitable and questioned possibility of separate development Afrikaners moved into business - found restrictions on labour market held them back Verligtes argued for better training for blacks and recognition of trade unions - would improve relations with white employers Advocated for more opportunities for rising African middle class - allowed to own homes Verkramptes argued solution was quicker/stricter implementation of separate development Vorster was pragmatic but sided with verkramptes - pursued homeland policy Rejected inquiry he commissioned that suggested greater integration of Coloureds 1978 - Vorster was ageing/ill (favoured Dr Connie Mulder for succession) Mulder was conservative Minister of Information and the Interior (propaganda/policy formulation) and head of Transvaal NP - worked closely with General van den Bergh (head of Security Police and Bureau of State Security - powerful in repressive police strategies) Vorster gave Mulder secret fund for propaganda campaign with ex-journalist Eschel Rhoodie as chief Tried to influence US/UK media by buying/publishing magazines; cultivated overseas politicians who supported white rule and smeared opponents (eg. Jeremy Thorpe, UK Liberal Party leader) who supported AAM The ‘information scandal’ 1978 - Gov rocked by ‘information scandal’ Newspapers revealed Mulder’s propaganda slush fund used in corrupt ways Individuals had used money for personal gain Most money went to establish loss-making paper The Citizen (aimed to gain support from English speakers) English opposition press used it to show corruption and power of Afrikaner rule - Afrikaners had been blind to previous criticism Auditor-General confirmed misuse of secret funds Van den Bergh/Rhoodie stood down 1978 - Vorster stood down and Mulder competed with P.W. Botha for PM Mulder’s Transvaal wing was biggest in NP but role in scandal/attempted denial became known - Transvaal nationalists split Botha was elected 98 votes to 74 Mulder lost leadership of Transvaal nationalists to strongly verkrampte A.P. Treurnicht Economic and population pressures 1973 - Oil crisis meant price of oil doubled and Western world went into recession SA was vulnerable to oil price - no natural oil so all imported 1950 - state-owned SASOL founded (biggest global oil-from-coal producer) - produced 1/3 of nation’s oil by 1980s (but SASOL petrol was expensive) Rise in gold price avoided sharp economic slump but manufacturing industry stopping growing Skilled whites were expensive and few in numbers - blacks were held back by training/promotion/lack of education Economy slowed down at time of exponential pop growth 1960-91 - White pop rose from 3m to 5m, African from 11m to 29m (white % from 20% 1950s to barely 13%) Pop (especially black) became younger - huge surge to cities, more shacks, high unemployment 1960 - 68% of Africans lived in rural areas Most SA was divided into white farms (80% rural land) 1950s-early 1980s - White farmers did well (heart of NP support, helped by gov subsidies) 1960 - 119k tractors (302k by 1980) 1950-90 - Farm sizes doubled (small farmers gave up) Larger, more efficient mechanized farms led to rises in production but reduced need for African workers Gov/farmers wanted to limit African occ on white farms - 2m moved off 1960-80 (some chose to leave - escape low paid/harsh farm labour) - seen as ‘surplus people’ (also no urban jobs) Many surplus people ended up on edges of homelands - far from employment Early 1980s - Winterveld (N of Pretoria) housed 500k+ displaced people 1979 - Botshabelo in Free State was bare veld (settlement of 200k+ by 1985) Majority came from farms, few houses built (gov demarcated sites/provided pit toilets) Each plot was 30x15m and had prefab tin toilet hut 1972-85 - KwaNdebele homeland grew from 32k to 200k+ 1975 - PUTCO ran 2 buses/day from KwaNdebele (263 by 1984) Africans left home at 4am and got back at 9pm (Pretoria was 100km away) Displaced towns couldn’t cope and many didn’t want to live there From 1979 - Shacks in cities proliferated (invaded municipal land and built shelters) No decent housing/electricity/running water (except communal taps) - still better to be near city Khayelitsha (nr Cape Town airport) became biggest - 500k+ in 1980s Gov couldn’t enforce pass laws - people ignored apartheid/encouraged gov to move them Early 1980s - Pass laws breaking down, some aspects successfully challenged in court Rapid urbanisation was direct outcome of pop growth Botha and reform 1978 - Botha became PM (not strong verligte but committed to reform - aware of SA’s isolation) Botha aimed to keep initiative and match reform with repression if needed (reform from above could empower opposition) The economy NP began to relax economic apartheid first Botha’s rule (1978-89) coincided with Thatcher/Reagan - powerful conservative/anti-communists (+ advocates for free markets/deregulation) meant less international pressure on SA​ NP no longer dependent on protecting poor whites (white living standards/education had greatly improved under apartheid) and Afrikaner business was very influential Gov decided to allow blacks to have more skilled jobs 1979 - Wiehahn Report suggested allowing black trade unions; Riekert Commission suggested giving urban blacks preferential treatment when job-seeking to create stable workforce/black middle class 1981 - Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act (recognised black trade unions (if registered in accordance with rules)) 1981 - de Lange Commission advocated gradual equalisation of educational expenditure with 1 department for education (but not racial integration) - African education expenditure increased sharply post-Soweto Botha softened racial language - increased homeland expenditure but recognised irreversible African urbanisation and Afrikaners should make opportunities for African urban elite Political powers were devolved to black councils 1979 - Urban Africans allowed long term leases on property (not freehold); football league deracialised (extraordinary change but didn’t impact most Afrikaners as they played rugby more) Small concessions but significant ideological changes Botha made overtures to conservative African church leaders NP/Thatcher courted Buthelezi - convincing alternative black political leadership, shared free market ideas The constitution Botha wanted to concentrate power in executive hands, not parliament - developed presidential gov (provided route for Indians/Coloureds who had no homelands) 1980 - President’s Council created (advisory body of white/Coloured/Indian politicians) 1983 - Coloured/Indian parliaments established with Council as overarching body; Botha became president at head of tricameral parliament Didn’t grant political rights to Africans outside homelands Coloureds/Indians were included in parliament after 30 years - racial exclusion softening Reform led to split of verkramptes under Treurnicht into new Conservative Party (believed reforms betrayed original apartheid principles - but always was flexible ideology) 1980s - Conservative Party achieved peak of 600k white votes (much less than NP but still won 22 white seats - displaced Progressive Federal Party as opposition) Treurnicht mobilised voters who felt they needed state protection - civil servants/white workers/farmers/rural Afrikaners Botha had to restrain reform to keep white electorate on side What pressures from beyond South Africa threatened National Party authority, 1974-83? SA became involved in conflict in Mozambique/Angola/Zimbabwe Soweto uprising/political prisoners suffering taken up by AAM/foreign media Political change in southern Africa Vorster was PM during isolated period (1966-78) but pursued active foreign policy in 1970s (wanted to leave previous laager mentality - idea that Afrikaners would cordon themselves off) Vorster gave loans to Lesotho/Swaziland - ensured they were dependent on economic support Early 1970s - SA received 40+ reps from African in Pretoria 1974/75 - Vorster toured West Africa (met with leaders in Ivory Coast/Liberia) Botha had aggressive foreign policy based on ‘total strategy’ (wanted regional military superiority/seek regional allies/take initiatives in winning hearts/minds) 1974 - Military coup in Portugal overthrew fascist gov (1975 - Angola/Mozambique free) Mozambique FRELIMO came to power led by Samora Machel (socialist - nationalised land/many businesses) 100k Portuguese settlers left - some to SA Machel sought support from communist states - alarmed SA gov Machel enabled Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) to establish bases in Mozambique (fighting guerilla war against Ian Smith’s white gov) - Smith supported Renamo movement (rebelling against FRELIMO) Botha expanded Remano support to destabilise Mozambique - discourage gov from giving haven for MK (ANC was already in Maputo - Mozambican capital) Mozambican civil war was long/devastating - also affected by drought in 1980s Angola and Namibia 1975 - Angola became independent under Marxist MPLA SA gov was worried Angola would be base for SWAPO (movement trying to free Namibia from SA rule) SA built up military on northern Namibia border - sent in troops 1975-76 SA/US gave support to UNITA (fighting civil war against MPLA) Extended talks held to reach internal settlement in Namibia - sponsored by UN/supported by Western powers (wanted moderate gov - not revolutionary/Soviet-oriented) SA reluctant to give up control - large white pop was majority Afrikaner NP feared SWAPO gov due to African majority rule - could support ANC along long border Botha built up military presence in northern Namibia - white youths had long military service there and standing army expanded SA recruited San/Bushmen (felt vulnerable as minority and good in bush war) Zimbabwe 1970s - Conflict raged in Rhodesia between Ian Smith’s gov and ZAPU/ZANU ZANU was most efficient military force - relied on Chinese military hardware/training Smith asked SA for help - NP feared communist gov taking over but knew white gov wouldn't last (provided enough help for gov to survive and encouraged internal settlement with moderate African leaders) Late 1970s - SA accepted Smith had to negotiate with liberation movements 1979 - Zimbabwean parties met at Lancaster House in London and agreed on constitution 1980 - ZANU won convincing victory in elections Robert Mugabe (new president) was initially supportive of reconciliation Whites had temporary minority of parliamentary seats, land reform was based on ‘willing buyer, willing seller’ basis Western govs (eg. UK) promised financial resources to underwrite purchase of white land - SA was wary but didn’t undermine it Botha decided costs of support in face of Western opposition were too great Mugabe was cautious about SA - didn’t allow ANC/PAC military bases/large presence in Zimbabwe Defence expenditure Pretoria chose to spend lots on defence - surrounded by independent countries and ANC 1968 - Armscor founded (gov corporation for procuring arms) - UN made voluntary ban on weapons to SA in 1963 By 1982 - 80% of armaments made in SA (gov assisted by France/Israel - SA/Israel both felt isolated/threatened and formed alliance) 1960 - 1% of GDP used for defence (4% in 1980s) 1961 - 27k police and 79k SADF costing R72m (1977 - 72k and 367k costing R194m) 1981 - Cost R3000m 4 Nov 1977 - UN Resolution 418 imposed arms embargo on SA 1977 - UN arms embargo made mandatory on South Africa (promulgated in 1963) Regional accommodations 1980 - 9 states launched Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) - excluded SA, designed as counterweight to apartheid Difficult as SA controlled key transport links to Botswana/Zimbabwe/Lesotho/Swaziland - SA could pressure other states to stop hosting ANC Mozambican ports were best alternative for SADCC - SA’s efforts were biggest against Mozambique (socialist/supported ANC/strategically important) 1982 - Swaziland signed non-aggression pact with SA; Lesotho persuaded not to host ANC 1984 - Mozambique signed (major breakthrough) Nkomati Accord (SA would stop Renamo military support if FRELIMO stopped hosting ANC) - had suffered seriously from civil war/SA incursions Seemed SA had removed border pressures - created constellation of states for business International condemnation of the National Party regime, 1974-83 SA was protected by UK/US/Germany but global consensus against apartheid solidified Economic sanctions and political alignments Early 1970s - Calls for economic sanctions fell on deaf ears 1973 - Reports of starvation wages paid by British firms in SA made headlines British parliamentary select committee/TUC advocated formal code of conduct for business 1975 - Activists approached Rev Leon Sullivan (African-American minister on General Motors board) and black Congressmen to formulate practices for US firms about wages/conditions AAM opposed these initiatives - organised demo of 6k in London after Soweto AAM wasn’t sure about supporting black consciousness/student movement given ties to ANC Tsietsi Mashini (SASM leader) given no platform when he came to London AAM/ANC still guided by SACTU (ANC’s union arm) - SACTU no longer had SA presence ANC was suspicious of new unions - not focused on national liberation, couldn’t control political direction (AAM was reluctant to promote/fundraise for them) From 1980 - AAM encouraged moves to Charterism in SA organisations Political prisoners 1970s - AAM found wider support by focusing on human rights not political liberation UK gov/public uneasy about armed struggle 1974 - AAM/linked organisations launched SATIS (SA, The Imprisoned Society) focusing on political prisoners (SATIS found British groups had already taken up Mandela’s name) AAM/ANC felt focus on prisoners was better with 1 iconic figure/personal story - avoided armed struggle 1975 - Mike Terry (ex-secretary of British NUS) became AAM secretary - gave new energy SATIS used case of Solomon Mahlangu: - 20 years old (Soweto generation), fled SA in 1976 for MK training - 1977 - Returned to SA (identified in days - 2 civilians killed in gun battle in Johannesburg) - Tried, sentenced to death and hanged in 1979 - Part of new generation ANC/AAM wanted to win over (important to support him in trial) - Became ANC hero (named school for exiled children in Tanzania after him) From 1978 - Campaign centred around Mandela (to celebrate 60th birthday - 3k sent including from UK Labour cabinet) AAM released biographies/stories/images from before imprisonment Media emphasised Mandela’s political stature/humanity/plight as prisoner The Times called him ‘colossus of African nationalism’ (fewer calling him terrorist) From 1980 - Global campaign focused on slogan ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ AAM realised importance of cultural connections not just political arguments 1983 - Mandela 65th birthday concert at Alexandra Palace