Untitled

Personality Unit 1 Introduction

• The study of personality is an expansive and multifaceted field within psychology that encompasses various theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and applications
• Personality psychology helps us understand the kind of individuals we are dealing with in counselling sessions

Scope of the Study of Personality

• Focuses on diverse theoretical approaches like trait, psychoanalytic, humanistic and social-cognitive theories
• Trait theories measure individual personality characteristics, like the Big Five personality traits
• Investigates the genetic and neurobiological underpinnings of personality traits, including temperament, behavioural genetics, and neurobiological processes
• Examines how personality evolves over the lifespan and how early life experiences, parenting, and life transitions impact personality development
• Investigates how personality affects and is affected by social interactions/self-perception, and how it is influenced by social/cultural contexts
• Cognitive approaches focus on how cognitive processes like perception, memory, and thought contribute to personality
• Motivational theories explore the drives and goals that influence behaviour and personality
• Examines how emotions and affective states are integral to personality by looking at individual differences in emotional experience and regulation
• Has practical applications in many fields, such as personality assessments used to diagnose and treat personality disorders

The Concept of Personality

• Psychologists define personality as qualities within someone, characteristics of someone's behaviour or both
• Psychologist Gordon Allport mentioned inner qualities and behaviours, emphasising the inner qualities ""Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine their unique adjustments to their environment""
• Psychologist Walter Mischel mentioned both the inner processes and behaviour but emphasised behaviour stating that personality consists of "the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and emotions) that characterise each individual's adaptation to the situations of his or her life"
• It generally includes the behaviour patterns a person shows across situations or the psychological characteristics of the person that lead to those behaviour patterns

Key Concepts and Definitions of Personality Based on Famous Psychologists

Sigmund Freud

• Defined personality as an interplay between three fundamental human psyche structures: id, ego, and superego
• Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory posits that human behaviour results from interactions among the id, ego, and superego
• The id is the primitive part of personality which seeks gratification of basic desires
• The ego is the rational part that mediates between the unrealistic id and the external world
• The superego is the moral conscience that incorporates societal standards and values
• Freud believed that personality develops through childhood stages, during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become fixated on certain erogenous areas (psychosexual stages)

Carl Jung

• Jung saw personality as resulting from conscious and unconscious processes and referred to as the "psyche"
• Analytical Psychology emphasizes the individual psyche and quest for wholeness
• The Collective Unconscious is a part of the unconscious mind shared among beings of the same species which contains archetypes
• Archetypes are inherited prototypes, such as "the hero", which shapes human experience
• Achieving balance among the opposing forces and integrating them leads to individuation (personal development)

Alfred Adler

• Defined personality as a unique, self-consistent pattern of behaviours shaped by social influences and the drive for superiority
• Individual Psychology emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the role of societal factors in shaping personality
• Striving for superiority is the drive to overcome inferiority feelings to achieve personal and societal success
• The Inferiority Complex refers to inadequacy feelings from childhood which motivate or hinder personal growth

Carl Rogers

• Defined personality in terms of self-concept i.e. the organised, consistent set of perceptions/beliefs about oneself
• Humanistic Theory focuses on people's inherent goodness and their potential for personal growth
• Self-Actualisation is the drive to realise someone's potential/achieve their highest level of human function
• Unconditional Positive Regard leads to acceptance/support of a person which fosters a positive "self-concept"

Gordon Allport

• Defined personality as the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine their characteristic behaviour and thought
• Trait Theory emphasises identification/measurement of specific personality traits
• Cardinal traits are dominant traits that influence major aspects of behaviour
• Central traits are general characteristics found to some degree in every person
• Secondary traits are less conspicuous and consistent, often only seen in some situations
• Believed personality is shaped by both inherent traits and personal experiences, with a focus on the uniqueness of the individual

Personality Assessment

• Refers to the measurement and evaluation of personality traits, behaviours, and characteristics.
• Personality assessment is a key area within psychology that aims to quantify and understand individual differences by using various tools and methods

Purpose of Personality Assessment

• Clinical Diagnosis: Used to identify and understand psychological conditions/disorders
• Personal Development: Helps people understand their own personality traits for personal growth
• Occupational Selection: Used in employment settings to select candidates whose personalities fit certain job roles
• Research: Aids in studying the relationship between personality and various psychological/behavioural outcomes

Methods Used in Personality Assessment

• Self-Report Inventories are questionnaires where individuals report their feelings/behaviours; an example is the Big Five Inventory (BFI)
• Projective Tests include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), where individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli for unconscious expression
• Behavioural Assessments consist of observations of an individual's behaviour in controlled situations, to infer personality traits
• Observer Ratings are assessments where other people like peers or supervisors rate the individual's personality traits

Theoretical Foundations in Personality Assessment

• Trait Theory focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics
• Psychodynamic Theory emphasises unconscious processes and childhood experiences
• The Humanistic Theory stresses personal growth and self-actualisation
• Social-Cognitive Theory examines how cognitive processes and social contexts influence personality

Importance of Personality Assessment: Crucial for...

• Clinical Interventions: Helps diagnose and create treatment plans for psychological disorders
• Career Counselling: Assists people when choosing careers that align with their personality traits
• Educational Settings: Helps to support/guide students by understanding their personality traits
• Research to: Provide data to understand the relationship between personality traits and various life outcomes

Major Personality Assessment Tools

• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a structured test to assess a variety of psychological conditions/personality attributes
• The Big Five Inventory (BFI) measures the major 5 dimensions of personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
• The Rorschach Inkblot Test shows different inkblots for a person to describe, revealing possible unconscious aspects
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) involves making stories about ambiguous pictures, which show underlying motives/concerns

Credibility of Personality Assessments

• It is important to assess the reliability, validity, standardization, test construction and cultural fairness when conducting personality assessments

Reliability

• Defintion: refers to the consistency of a measure - a reliable personality assessment will yield the same results under consistent conditions.
• Internal Consistency is the degree to which a test measures the same construct e.g. if all items assess the same traits (assessed with Cronbach’s alpha)
• Test-Retest Reliability means the stability of test results overtime - a reliable test will produce similar scores if taken at different times

Validity

• Definition: refer to the extent to which an assessment measures what the assessor wants it to measure
• Construct validity is the degree to which a test is intended to measure e.g. in convergent validity (measures are of the same construct), while discriminant validity (test does not correlate with measures)
• Criterion-related validity refers to the extent to which a measure is rated to a certain outcome, which includes predictive validity (predicts future behavior) and concurrent validity(relates to other measures taken at the same time)

Standardization

• Definition: administering and scoring the assessment in a consistent manner - ensures similar test conditions for all individuals, enhancing credibility.
• Standardized tests allow for comparing individuals of different backgrounds and helps in interpreting the results in order to draw conclusions

Norms

• Norms are statistical data - allow psychologists to determine where an individual falls in relation to the rest of the population

Test Constructions

• Item selection should be based on theoretical foundations and empirical data. Items should be clear, relevant, and free from bias.
• Pilot testing identifies and rectify potential issues in item formulation and test administration.
• Ensure that the test items cluster together in ways that reflects construct (Clark & Watson, 1995)

Cultural Fairness

• Cultural fairness is ensuring tests are appropriate and valid amongst different cultural and demographic groups
• Cultural biases can lead to invalid results that do not represent those from certain diverse backgrounds - need to establish universal applicability studies

Personality Change

• Refers to the alteration in the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours which define an individual over a period of time - changes may impact how one perceives the world and interact with others

Factors That Influence Personality Change (can be broadly categorized into):

• Biological Factors: Genetics, changes in brain structure/chemistry, and changes in hormones
• Psychological Factors: Life experiences, health issues, and cognitive development
• Social Factors: Relationships and cultural influences, and the adoption of new social roles i.e. becoming a parent
• Environmental Factors: Transitions throughout life, education and learning, and one's socioeconomic status

Personality Changes Throughout the Lifespan

-Changes in personality are prone to occur as we progress through life

• Early adulthood (20s-40s): Extraversion and neuroticism may occur as individuals take on life roles - conscientiousness and agreeableness also generally increases
• Middle adulthood (40s-60s): Conscientiousness continues to rise as focus is attributed to work and family - neuroticism generally decreases, but openness and extraversion may begin to decline
• Late adulthood (60s+): Greater emotional regulation, stability and decreases in neuroticism - agreeableness often peaks, but extraversion and openness may start decreasing

Unit -2 Psychoanalytic Approach

Psychoanalysis

• The iceberg model splits the mind into three levels of consciousness: the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious
• The conscious mind consists of the thoughts/perceptions that we are aware of
• The preconscious mind consists of things that are not in conscious awareness but can be easily brought into it i.e. a memory
• The unconscious mind is where bulk of all mental processes go, including repressed feelings/memories that we are not aware of - influences behavior and personality

Components In The Unconscious Mind

• The id is the part of the personality that functions on the base of the pleasure principle - seeks instant satisfaction
• Unconscious influence refers to the drives/desires of the id that are mostly unconscious
• The ego functions based on the basis of being realistic - mediates between the id, superego and the external world
• Much of the ego functions within the conscious mind and it also includes unconscious processes
• The superego is the moral conscious that includes ideal, aspiration, and guilt
• The superego mostly operates largely in the unconscious mind, it has conscious elements

Interactions Of The Components

• The id, ego, superego are often in conflict, to which the ego manages via defense mechanisms to manage anxiety and protect itself

Defense Mechanisms

• Are strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety
• Includes repression, denial, projection and rationalisation - these typically occur unconsciously

Types of Defence Mechanisms

• Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts/desires into the unconscious - considered the most fundamental defence mechanism
• Denial: Refusal to accept the reality/facts - is a way to avoid dealing with feelings or situations
• Projection: Attributing unacceptable thoughts/motives to someone else to avoid facing them in yourself
• Displacement: Redirecting feelings or emotions from a threatening target to something that is safer Rationalisation: Creating logical explanations for behaviour or feelings that are impulsed by the unconscious
• Reaction Formation: Acting in a way that is opposite to one's unacceptable desires or feelings - is a way to hide feelings Regression: Reverting to behaviours characteristic of an earlier time during stress/anxiety - is a way to cope with feelings of insecurity
• Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities
• Intellectualisation: Using excessive thinking/abstract reasoning to avoid dealing with difficult emotions
• Identification: Unconsciously adopting the characteristics or behaviours of someone which one finds powerful or admirable
• Undoing: Attempting to 'undo' a thought or action that's unacceptable with a behaviour
• Compensation: This involves overachieving in one area to maintain self esteem from perceived shortcoming

Psychosexual Developmental Theories

• Sigmund Freud developed a theory on psychosexual development which tells the stories of how ones personality develops via the energies of erogenous zones

Stages

• The Oral Stage (0-1 years): Infants interact via there mouth by eating - weaning is the the development task
• The Anal Stage (1-3 years): Child is in control of their bladder/bowl - toilet habits teach either too harsh or too much
• The Phallic Stage (3-6 years): child learns to explore their genitals - learn to understand conflicts and understand who they are, the oedipus or electra complex
• The Latency Stage (6 years+): The child focusses on skills rather than erogenous feeling
• The Genital Stage (puberty onwards): They learn to be successfully completed to make balance of well balance people - with a problem free mind

Free Association

• A psychoanalytic approach where the speaker say what ever their thoughts are without filtering - to help uncover unconsious matierial influencing and behavior/personalities
• This occurs in a relaxed position, and to speak what ever comes to mind regardless of the topic
• By doing this the therapist can see what kind of topics trigger/have been hidden in the unconisous conflicts
• By doing this also, the therapist will see resistance to the change in patients, they'll have emotional catharsis and insght

Dream Analysis

• This is use to explore the unconscious meanings desires and conflicts within the patients
• Freud stated this as wish fulfillment with repressed and diguise to come to the surface

Contains

• Manifest Constant which is the literal storyline or images of the dream - but bizarre enough to be the literal meaning
• The hidden psychological meanings are the "latent constant"- this reflects unconscious desires, conflicts, and repressed experiences

How The Dream Works

• Dream condensation is the mix of ideas to become a single dream Desire displacement is the emotion that transfer from a safe guard
• Dream symbolisim is the use of objests that take on larger meanings
• Dream elaboration is the organising of it into a constant that is coherent/symbolic

Neoanalytical approach

• Is an evolution of Freud and others who follow to use social, cultural and external factors when developing a person
• Unlike Freud who only used the conscious, and the early childhood with other factors

Types of Theorist

• Carl jung : he use in unconsious in a collective space, everyone in a given collective will have a similar symbol for its mean
• • Archetypes: common patterns and symbols to be in someone's collective, hero, shadow persona and so on
• • This is in the process to be complete and know their self
• Alfred Adler: individual in it set to their dynamic with in the family to have their life more set
• • Striving for superiority: drive for mastery for self improvement rather than sexual drives like Fued
• Karen Horney: Feminism in play, suggesting that gender plays a role in how different genders see eny
• • Challenged tradional views and use to understand gender in psyo analysis
• Erik Erikson: He saw the child start to take on roles and expand further through life
• • Emphazised on how life is a long endeaour with much roles to take
• harry stack: Intapersonnal where person needs to make person relations not sexual drive

Principals

• Importants of social influences to be aware of outhers
• focus on how the person is doing overall
• To see there identity to solve it

Issues of the Neoanalytic Apporach

• Have to go back to test and not real test to confirm to be with in testing to see what it is
• complexity to the approch will cause a hard time to test due to each culture

Uses

• use it as tool to be seful to help others for there identity and cultute issues

Analytical Psychology

• A way to respond and extend more than Freud
• Spiritually, presonal growth and the ability to understand things with in a given group
• Strucher includes mind and unsoncious of one self

Structure Of Psycho

A) Conscious Mind (ego): The center of awareness and identity, makes plans and sees the world B) Personal unconscious : Holds feelings thoughts and experience that have been suppressed or locked in C) Collective unconscious: Deep set of thing you hold with the mind and patters with in with ach patterns

Arctypes

• They help us understand how we do things, why did happen
• There are symbol of our person and soul that are fund

The process

• Help to understand this journey of our life and why with the goal of individuation
• It mean we are working to be that in our collective in our personal with the shadows

Psychology Types

• What we see is set by attitude and what you set of doing with in your daily
• We work with thing and feeling when we can but to give that to every mind
• They set to have 8 groups that everyone with fit into with the list

Thearpy

• The set of doing is high and the search for meaning

contribution

• They have gone throw something with the need to be great
• Personaility that influence a person and who they want to be
• Holitic view that is the same across the person

Dream Analysis

• It that look at how they go thoes that can give with in the way to be the mind

Key points

• To dream the need to be balances
• We use dream to help give some light

Criticism of Analytical Psychology

• It can be hard to test at this given time with everything coming into play
• Is a meto physics that can't be the same among folks with other set

Recent Trends in Psychoanalystic Theories

• Psydynamic for the next Gen
• To see how the conscious and unconscious are linked to brain
• • Can se if the id, supergo, and ego
• Object, the attachtmnent for our self
• All need to have a base and a plan from early life on

Factors

• Looking at cultrue
• what sex you have and what that mean to others
• to short or over time
• to see if trauma has come by or with in these

Unit -3 - Behavioural, Learning, Humanistic, and Existential Theories

Radical and Methodological Behavourism

• BF Sinner theory to to see what an action may be with all that are shapped to it and what conditoins it
• See that ever think as just a set of hait
• Key pints is that are setting, condition and actions

Behaviour

• That a person is going to be to help set something on with in the body
• To use this action and set a goal to how to act

There are to set

• to have an increase in the like hood to repeat
• • if somwthing we would wish a thing and not to have it -The use is a set of helping folks to have an help full to other

We look to reduce a behaviour when it no longer help full

• • if the act is some thing to hard they will remove from helping as other things are to do
• There are to type seth with helping and other but to help learn and help to stay
• There is ever given to a task but get less so that things can help keep this go
• To to get a dog to do work we keep then to set to do it and how

The detmisionalsm

• The way they are now will be the of all there action and there is nothing but the with how this all went
• There are outter and inner actios to see and help to grow

Factors

• the person has to has has to be in for helping
• To have a good set of how they can be for the task

To test use

• to come to find wath way give this
• then to fix the way it is use

View

• the there over reliance

Methodlism behaviour

• to see if it helpfull but to work on side to side
• There are set of how people react and how feel

factors

• To see how that looks to others to help show there thought better

Application in psychology

• to treat for all with the help of what needs

Humanistic Theory

• Sees the view and is willing to help with needs as well as to care for others on equal ground -There are to key part for the thing to come with the view
• It's to see people that are at this part can be high for helping and doing

Key points for the set

• All you needs have to meet with the with a set
• To have the set to know to can ask and get thing done
• to see what the role is to plan and how plan

The 5 set level

• The need there set for the basic

• safe needs to have and have with the help

• There are a level of what is the right

• What it take to be there and to set goals

• To see how to to this level on the world

• There over view with help for this set and how see the setting