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• Psychological assessment has a rich historical, cultural, and ethical context that is important to understand.

Historical Context of Psychological Assessment

• Psychological testing and assessment have a timeline spanning from 2200 B.C.E. to the present.
• Early systematic tests were developed in China as early as 2200 B.C.E., testing proficiency in music, archery, writing, and horsemanship.
• Passing these tests entitled individuals to privileges that varied by dynasty, with those who scored higher often being exempt from torture.
• While the Ancient Egypt and Greco-Roman cultures had specific ideas relating to mental health and personality, they lacked formal means of psychological assessment.
• In Egypt, priests were considered more important than physicians, with a greater emphasis placed on religious beliefs and practices in healing.
• Treatment took an informal approach, focusing on religion, with priests performing exorcism.
• The Greco-Romans categorized personality types based on the amount of bodily fluids, including:
  • Choleric (yellow bile): Ambitious, easily angered, passionate, aggressive
  • Melancholic (black bile): Melancholy, depressed
  • Sanguine (blood): Optimistic, courageous, amorous
  • Phlegmatic (phlegm): Thoughtful, reasonable, calm, lazy, apathetic

Charles Darwin and Francis Galton

• Charles Darwin's interest in individual differences led his half-cousin, Francis Galton, to devise measures for psychological variables like motor and sensory skills.
• Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection suggests that even with the same parents, we have individual differences in terms of adaptivity and survival.
• Francis Galton believed that individual differences not only exist but are objectively measurable and hereditary, which leads the development of anthropometric measures.
• Galton contributed to the development of psychological assessment tools and correlation.

Wilhelm Max Wundt

• Wundt is known as the Father of Psychology and Experimental Psychology.
• He established an Experimental Psychology Laboratory, and studied reaction time, perception, and attention span.
• Wundt focused more on measuring similarities rather than differences.
• Instead of viewing differences as a source of error, they should be managed as controlled extraneous variables.

James McKeen Cattell

• Cattell, a student of Wundt, focused on individual differences and reaction time.
• Measuring individual differences helps identifying those who require more attention.
• Cattell met Galton and described him as "The greatest man I have known".
• In 1890, Cattell coined the term "mental test".
• He was responsible for launching mental testing in its modern form, with the aim of solving problems through formal psychological tests

20th Century

• Public interest in psychological tests grew as more useful tests were developed, such as IQ and personality tests.

Intelligence Tests

• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed a 30 item-measuring scale of intelligence to identify mentally retarded Paris schoolchildren.
• Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon Scale and developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales in 1916 at Stanford University with specific kits for age ranges.
• Psychological tests were used on a regular basis in schools, clinics, courts, hospitals, and prisons.
• The tests are administered individually.
• David Wechsler made a test to measure adult intelligence.
• There is also a version for children, with differences in content and purpose

Group Tests

• During WW1 and WW2 there was a need for large-scale testing of intellectual ability of new recruits.
• After WW1 and WW2 psychologists increasingly used tests in large corporations and private organizations.
• Robert Yerkes was the APA president in 1921.
• The Army ALPHA test was verbal and was administered to recruits who can read.
• The Army BETA test was nonverbal and was administered to those who can't read in English.

Personality Tests: Self-Report Tests

• Self-report tests screen recruits.
• A committee headed by Robert Woodworth developed the Personal Data Sheet.
• They used deception and never revealed the true purpose of the screening.
• Because the development was only completed before the war ended it was not used for screening.
• It was redesigned to Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory to be used for civilians, and was the first widely used self-report personality test.
• By the late 1930's, over 4000 psychological tests were in print (intellectual functioning).
• They also wanted to test general adjustment (personality test), because during that time it was said that Psychology was only test-oriented.
• Self-Report Tests: assessees supply assessment-related information by responding to questions
  • Advantage: Best qualified people to provide answers about themselves.
  • Disadvantages:
    • Poor insight into themselves
    • Believe some things about themselves that in reality are not true.
    • Unwilling to reveal something very personal or paints them in a negative light
    • Certain tests have built-in scale if there is any lying or manipulation involved

Projective Tests

• Individuals are assumed to "project" their unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation onto ambiguous stimuli.
• These types of tests are not easily manipulated.

Psychological Assessment: Two Lines

• Competently used tests and assessment tools can help:
  • Academically: Advance knowledge and understanding of human and animal behavior
  • Applied:
    • Selecting applicants for positions based on merit.
    • Helping people in need
    • Addressing society demands

Culture and Assessment

• There is a controversy that tests are not fair since it was developed for a specific population and cannot be accurately applied to all cultures.
• IQ tests are created for Americans

Culture

• Culture: Any group that shares a theme/issue/s.
• Culture relates to the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people.
• Culture can affect responses to certain situations.
• Clincians can be influenced by culture and should adjust to look at the situation in a world view.
• Cultural Sensitivity: There should be greater consideration of cultural issues with respect to every aspect of test development and use, including decision-making on the basis of test data

Cultural Competence

• Cultural Self-Awareness: Clincians become more informed about their own cultural background and the subsequent influence it might have in their clinical work.
• Clinicians should not impose their own beliefs to the client
• Discriminating assumptions should be replaced with respectful and truthful ways of appreciating others.
• Clinicians should not impose their own beliefs to the client

Knowledge of Diverse Cultures

• Clinicians should have knowledge about their client's cultural background, adapting behavior accordingly, like avoiding eye contact.
• Understand that a group's collective tendency doesn't necessarily reflect the characteristics of every member of that group.

Culturally Appropriate Clinical Skills

• Culturally appropriate clinical skills relate to a clinician's actions with clients, influenced by cultural self-awareness and knowledge of diverse cultures.
• Choosing the appropriate test for a client’s culture and character is important, as well as avoiding microaggressions or passive-aggressive attitudes.

Culture and Assessment: Non-Verbal Communication and Behavior

• Non-verbal communication and behavior may vary from one culture to another and clinicians may have to develop hypotheses from body language.
• Different cultures may complete tasks a different pace (problematic for times tests).
• Certain cultures may hold back information so make sure to also observe nonverbal cues.

Standards of Evaluation

• Judgements of psychological traits are culturally relative.
• Cultures differ with regards to gender roles and views of psychopathology.
• Cultures differ along the spectrum of individualist vs. collectivist societies.

Conducting an Assessment Considerations

• Identify the cultural identities of the client
• Conceptualize their distress in a cultural lens
• Evaluate psychosocial stressors and protective factors
• Be mindful of the cultural features of the relationship between clinician and client
• Be accountable for all decisions

Ethics

• Ethics are standards that members of a profession must follow.
• Morals of the group (right or wrong)
• To ensure we do no harm to the individuals with whom we work with.
• We are expected to commit ourselves in placing the welfare of the society and its members above the self-interest of the discipline and its members

Seven Basic Assumptions About Ethics

• Ethics are a continuous and active process
• Ethics requires an active, thoughtful, and creative approach
• One must have awareness of evolving research and theory
• There are no questions that are off limits
• Ethical dilemmas are part of our work
• Most professionals want to do right, but fallibility exists
• It's easier to question the ethics of others than our own
• The Psychological Association of the Philippines Committee on Ethics and Professional Standards (2022) provides as code which PAP encourages its members to study for continuous improvement.
• The PAP Code of Ethics guides psychologists and psychometricians.
• These standards are not laws, but professional practice standards developed to ensure individuals behave in a way that does not break laws and minimize the likelihood of lawsuits
• Violations in ethical standards can lead to penalties/ license suspension or revocation by the board of ethics

Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles

• Psychologists in the Philippines adhere to this declaration, which guides and inspires psychologists toward ethical ideals in their work across cultures.
  • Principles are aspirational.
  • Standards are obligatory.

General Principles

• Psychologists must respect the dignity of persons and people.
• Psychologists must competently care for the well-being of persons and people.
• Psychologists must demonstrate integrity across their activities.
• Psychologists have professional and scientific responsibilities to society

Assessment - Ethics

• Basis for assessments involve expert opinions based on appropriate techniques, substantial information, and discussing limitations when providing opinions.
• Informed consent is required prior to assessment, unless mandated by law, implied (education, institution/organization), or when determining decisional capacity.
• Informed consent is not required for screening for a work application

Assessment tools requirements

• Only select tests that will answer referral questions.
• Use updated, standardized valid and reliable tools and methods.
• Use the tools appropriate to the client's characteristics.
• Language, competence
• Use original copies of test materials
• Cannot use obsolete and outdated test results.
• When interpreting assessment results, always indicate limitations and consider factors that may have affected the results.
  • Environment
  • Test taking abilities
  • Client's characteristics

Assessment - Releasing Data

• Release of test data is to those agreed upon by the referral sources prior to procedure, and raw data is only released if regulated by the court.
• Explaining assessment results is only to sources of referral with written permission from the client (if self-referral).
• Security is to be explained with non-technical language.
• Supervise releases on schools, agencies, courts, or industry.
• It must be handled by qualified users or personnel, supervising the results and keeping it secure.
• Assessment by unqualified persons is to be done for training with adequate supervision. As psychometricians, practice under the boundaries prescribed in RA 10029
• Test construction must use current scientific findings and knowledge, appropriate psychometric properties, validation, and standardization procedures.

Privacy & Confidentiality

• Central to relationship between client and psychologist
• Not all information is deemed privileged, therefore clinicians cannot promise absolute confidentiality
• Confidentiality may be broken under certain circumstances like if the client shows behaviors that can/will harm to self or others or indicates abuse

Steps in Ethical Decision Making

• State the problem as clearly as possible
• Identify the potential issues involved
• Review the relevant ethical codes and standards
• Know the applicable laws and regulations
• Enumerate the consequences of the various decisions
• Decide on what could be the best course of action and take it
• Consider/Develop possible course of action
• Obtain/Consider consultation
• Assume personal responsibility for the consequences
• Consider implications for preparation, planning, and prevention
• Document the process and assess the results