Historical Analysis Concepts Quiz

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Questions and Answers

Which hypothesis suggests that events and ideas manifest due to a unique combination of time and place?

Zeitgeist/Ortgeist Hypothesis (correct)

Special person hypothesis

Presentism

Cyclical repetitions hypothesis

What does the cyclical repetitions hypothesis imply about the nature of historical events?

History is solely determined by individual actions.

Historical events are completely random and unpredictable.

Historical events reoccur in cycles in new forms. (correct)

History is linear and cannot repeat itself.

In the context of historical analysis, what does the term 'presentism' refer to?

Understanding historical values in their specific context.

The idea that history is entirely random.

The belief that extraordinary individuals shape history.

Evaluating past events based solely on present values. (correct)

Which concept involves attributing human-like traits to non-human entities?

Anthropomorphism Signup and view all the answers

What does the randomness (chaos) hypothesis suggest about history?

Events in history happen by chance without a guiding principle. Signup and view all the answers

Which belief system is defined as a system of beliefs about a universal spirit and the human soul's place within it?

Religion Signup and view all the answers

The special person hypothesis attributes significant historical changes to which factor?

Extraordinary individuals Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of animism entail regarding the understanding of non-human entities?

Interpreting behavior as influenced by a powerful agent within an object. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary assumption of Monism regarding reality?

Only one true reality exists, either matter or spirit. Signup and view all the answers

Which perspective suggests that material processes are the sole source of mental phenomena?

Materialism Signup and view all the answers

What does Double Aspecticism propose about spirit and nature?

They are two aspects of the same reality. Signup and view all the answers

What does Pluralism assert about ontological status?

Two or more realms exist, each with equal validity. Signup and view all the answers

According to rationalism, what is preferred over empirical induction in science?

Logical deduction Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests new qualities emerge from the combination of physical elements?

Emergentism Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary component of a scientific paradigm?

Disciplinary matrix Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the view that there are multiple schools of thought in science without hierarchical rules?

Anarchist Theory of Science Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher is associated with the concept of hypotheses needing to be falsifiable?

Karl Popper Signup and view all the answers

What does Occasionalism assert about the interaction of body and soul?

God intervenes for every communication between them. Signup and view all the answers

What describes the process of scientific advancement according to Kuhn's paradigm model?

Normal science leading to crisis and revolution. Signup and view all the answers

What does Epiphenomenalism suggest about mental events?

They are mere by-products of material processes. Signup and view all the answers

In what context is the term 'A priori' used?

Knowledge existing independent of experience. Signup and view all the answers

What does Attributive Pluralism emphasize?

The existence of multiple realities based on concepts. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of science as it pertains to understanding the universe?

To describe, predict, control, and explain phenomena Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes causal laws from observational and correlational laws in scientific generalizations?

Causal laws allow for predictions, control, and explanations Signup and view all the answers

How did Aristotle categorize different types of causes?

Through antecedent conditions, immediate conditions, and teleological conditions Signup and view all the answers

What was the significant shift proposed by John Watson regarding the field of psychology?

He rejected mental mechanisms in favor of observable behavior Signup and view all the answers

What philosophical principle expresses that the universe is knowable and events within it are consistent?

Basic assumptions (axioms) of science Signup and view all the answers

In the context of philosophical inquiry, what does epistemology primarily concern?

The sources and nature of knowledge Signup and view all the answers

What key concept does the term 'psychology' trace back to in ancient Greek literature?

Psyche, referring to the soul or mind Signup and view all the answers

What main critique do some scholars pose regarding ex-post-factum explanations in science?

They do not necessarily reflect genuine causal relationships Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Alfred Bandura re-introduce into psychology during his time?

He reinstated the role of mental mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

What methodological approach contrasts nomothetic in psychology?

Qualitative analysis concerned with individual cases Signup and view all the answers

In modern psychology, what necessity arises from the aspiration to be recognized as a science?

Limitation to specific methods and rational principles Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'materialism' refer to in the context of philosophical ontology?

The view that physical matter is the primary substance of reality Signup and view all the answers

Which historical figure contributed to the development of the term 'psychology' as recognized today?

Marko Marulic Signup and view all the answers

The observation that a relationship exists between two measurable variables reflects which type of law in science?

Correlational law Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Hippocrates in treating diseases?

Natural causes and treatments Signup and view all the answers

According to Pythagoras, what is considered the best way to know the essence of reality?

Mathematical models and rational thinking Signup and view all the answers

What was Alcmaeon of Croton's contribution to the understanding of health?

Health as harmony among different bodily elements Signup and view all the answers

What does the Hippocratic Oath emphasize as a core principle?

Confidentiality and not causing harm Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of the theory of eidola?

Recognition is through matching different copies of objects Signup and view all the answers

How did Hippocrates view the concept of 'melancholia'?

An imbalance of body fluids (humors) Signup and view all the answers

What did Pythagoras consider the relationship between the body and the soul?

The body is a prison for the soul requiring liberation Signup and view all the answers

What did Alcmaeon establish about the brain's role?

It is the center for sensations and perceptions Signup and view all the answers

In Hippocrates' view, what is the role of the physician?

To help nature heal the body through interventions Signup and view all the answers

What type of relationship did Pythagoras believe was essential to uncover the universe's secrets?

Mathematical relationships through intellectual reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What does Protagoras assert about truth and perception?

Truth is relative and depends on the observer's state. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best reflects Socrates's view on self-knowledge?

Evil arises from a lack of knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

How does Plato differentiate between sensory information and rational knowledge?

Rational knowledge provides true knowledge, while sensory info leads to mere opinions. Signup and view all the answers

What represents the essence of things in Plato's philosophy?

Pure forms or ideas independent of sensory experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of Socrates's main methods for eliciting philosophical insight?

Engaging people through questions to reveal their ignorance. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the sophists is true?

They claimed that human perception influences reality. Signup and view all the answers

What critical view did Socrates hold towards relativism?

He found it to be a source of confusion and ignorance. Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophy did Aristotle contribute to after studying under Plato?

Empirical observation and classification of knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What change occurred in the understanding of mental illness during the transition from ancient cultures to Greek philosophy?

Supernatural explanations were all but dismissed. Signup and view all the answers

Which idea reflects the holistic approach towards well-being in ancient Greek philosophy?

Recognition of mental and physical health as interconnected. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is emphasized in both Jewish culture and Confucianism?

Obedience and respect for tradition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of meditation in Daoism?

Achieve unity with the universe Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant teaching of Buddhism regarding human existence?

Suffering is intrinsic and must be transcended Signup and view all the answers

What is Zoroastrianism's view on the nature of the divine?

There is a constant struggle between good and evil Signup and view all the answers

Which civilization is recognized as the first advanced European urban civilization?

Minoans Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Greek mythology, what does the behavior of gods primarily represent?

Human emotions and passions Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher proposed that water is the fundamental element of the universe?

Thales Signup and view all the answers

What was the consequence of the beliefs held by Democritus regarding the nature of the universe?

Promotion of hedonism and materialism Signup and view all the answers

What core idea is shared among the pre-Socratic philosophers about the cosmos?

The cosmos is made of several basic elements Signup and view all the answers

How does Hinduism view the process of attaining the essence of things?

Through meditation and self-discipline Signup and view all the answers

What did Anaximander propose as the basic element of the cosmos?

The indefinite, or apeiron Signup and view all the answers

What is a shared belief between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism regarding human actions?

Moral conduct determines spiritual outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What does Empedocles' theory identify as the four basic elements?

Fire, Water, Earth, Air Signup and view all the answers

What does ataraxia emphasize as a pathway to happiness?

Philosophical acceptance of life's events Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophical movement emerged as a response to skepticism in the Hellenistic period?

Neoplatonism Signup and view all the answers

In Gnosticism, what does the term 'gnosis' refer to?

Secret teachings Signup and view all the answers

What is the central theme of St. Paul's teachings on human nature?

Human existence is a blend of body and spirit Signup and view all the answers

How did the Hellenistic period's view of knowledge shift compared to earlier Greek philosophies?

A turn towards mystical and divine revelations Signup and view all the answers

What was St. Paul's perspective on God’s nature?

God is described as omniscient and omnipotent Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of Hermeticism suggest about human understanding of the universe?

It emphasizes knowledge derived from mystical traditions. Signup and view all the answers

What event marked the beginning of the system of designating years as A.D. or B.C.?

Birth of Jesus Christ Signup and view all the answers

What reason underlies the Hellenistic shift away from the Greek legacy of reason?

Loss of confidence in philosophical inquiry Signup and view all the answers

Which significant artwork was sculpted by Michelangelo and can be found in St. Peter Basilica in Rome?

The Pieta Signup and view all the answers

In Raphael's painting The School of Athens, which philosopher is depicted as a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci?

Plato Signup and view all the answers

Which invention is NOT attributed to Leonardo da Vinci?

Helicopter Signup and view all the answers

What type of music continued in older forms such as motet and Mass during the Renaissance period?

Sacral music Signup and view all the answers

Which artist's work is recognized for a significant influence on the development of both sacred and secular music during the Renaissance?

Palestrina Signup and view all the answers

What notable achievement did Michelangelo attain while working under the Pope's invitation in Rome?

Painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following works was created by Botticelli?

The Birth of Venus Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of human and animal anatomy significantly interested Leonardo da Vinci?

Systematic anatomical comparisons Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the 'Rational (Active) Soul' according to Aristotle?

It is unique to humans and considered immortal. Signup and view all the answers

In Stoicism, how is one advised to handle emotions in relation to life's events?

Suppress emotions to achieve inner peace. Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophy suggests that happiness can be achieved by avoiding strong passions?

Epicureanism Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'ataraxia' refer to in Greco-Roman philosophy?

A condition of tranquility and peace. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Cynics' view on societal norms?

They rejected societal norms in favor of a natural lifestyle. Signup and view all the answers

According to Skepticism, how should individuals respond to perceptions of truth?

Remain humble and avoid making final judgments. Signup and view all the answers

What did Aristotle believe about the relationship between the soul and matter?

The soul defines the essence of matter. Signup and view all the answers

What major shift occurred in the cultural center of Hellenic culture after Alexander's empire was divided?

Alexandria emerged as a significant hub for intellectual pursuits. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of Stoicism distinguishes it from other philosophies of the era?

The idea of a divine master plan governing events. Signup and view all the answers

What educational approach did Aristotle advocate for developing intellectual and moral virtues?

Rigorous education through study and care. Signup and view all the answers

What did the Greco-Roman philosophy of Epicureanism emphasize about pleasure?

One should accept pleasures but not depend entirely on them. Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental belief about truth is shared by Skepticism?

Truth cannot be known definitively, leading to a state of aporia. Signup and view all the answers

What does the soul represent in Aristotle's view?

The essence imparting character to matter. Signup and view all the answers

What does Aristotle's concept of hylomorphism describe?

The combination of matter and form to create a meaningful existence Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts refers to the purpose or ultimate goal driving changes in the universe according to Aristotle?

Teleology Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary method through which true knowledge is acquired according to Plato?

Rational thinking and intellectual meditation Signup and view all the answers

How does Aristotle differentiate between human and non-human souls?

Human rational souls are immortal, whereas animals have only nutritive and sensitive souls Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between memory and recollection according to Aristotle?

Memory is automatic, while recollection requires conscious effort Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics defines the world of forms?

Timeless and immutable Signup and view all the answers

How did Plato view the relationship between the body and the soul?

The body serves as a prison for the human soul Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes Aristotle's stance on the nature of dreams?

Dreams arise from the movement of sense impressions during sleep Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of learning and habit did Aristotle emphasize as crucial for ethical behavior?

The integration of individual differences and social supports Signup and view all the answers

Which quality was attributed to the rational soul according to Plato?

Possesses the ability to engage in higher reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What did Plato believe to be the primary cause of mental disorders?

Conflict among the rational, appetitive, and affective components of the psyche Signup and view all the answers

Which factor distinguishes common sensibles from special objects of sense in Aristotle's theory of sensation?

Common sensibles are perceived by multiple senses simultaneously Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Aristotle's epistemology?

Sensory experience followed by rational abstraction reveals essence Signup and view all the answers

According to Plato, how should ethics be established?

On foundations of rational thinking and reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the concept of entelecheia in Aristotle's philosophy?

It signifies the state of completeness or realization of potential Signup and view all the answers

In Plato's view, what is the ultimate source of pleasure?

Engagement in philosophical activities Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes Aristotle's view on the relationship between sensation and perception?

Sensation is fundamental, while perception is vulnerable to error Signup and view all the answers

What analogy did Plato use to describe the relationship between the soul's functions?

A chariot pulled by two horses Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents an aspect of Plato's theory concerning memory?

Memory reflects the soul's ability to recollect knowledge from prior existence Signup and view all the answers

What does Aristotle attribute as essential for human motivation and the pursuit of happiness?

The ability to reason alongside the pursuit of good Signup and view all the answers

In Aristotle's view, how does the process of imagination differ from perception?

Imagination can conjure images at will, unlike perception which depends on reality Signup and view all the answers

What did Plato believe was crucial for good political leadership?

Acquisition of knowledge and learning Signup and view all the answers

What role does Aristotle assign to memory in relation to past experiences?

Memory is crucial for forming expectations about future events Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the concept of 'eros' in Plato's philosophy?

A physical love bound to the body and sensory experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the three divisions of the soul in Plato's philosophy?

They reflect the potential for psychological harmony within a person Signup and view all the answers

Which statement aligns most closely with Aristotle's rejection of the chaotic nature of the universe?

There is a rational structure and direction driving natural phenomena Signup and view all the answers

What warning did Plato give regarding children's stories and fairytales?

They negatively impact moral development Signup and view all the answers

What was Plato's stance on the influence of pleasure in human life?

Pleasure in moderation can lead to harmony and balance Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary focus of some monastic orders during the Middle Ages?

Engaging in community service and prayer Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following events sparked the Crusades in the late Medieval period?

The Muslim Turks' control of Palestine Signup and view all the answers

What academic discipline emerged as a result of the intellectual climate of the High Medieval period?

Scholasticism Signup and view all the answers

What significant change did the Christian Council of Rome in 1215 mandate?

The establishment of compulsory grammar schools Signup and view all the answers

Which scholar is well-known for his encyclopedic work 'Canon of Medicine'?

Avicenna Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable consequence of the Black Death in Europe?

Dramatic reduction in feudal power Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the mind does St. Paul highlight as being caught between terrestrial behavior and spirituality?

Practical consciousness Signup and view all the answers

Which architectural style emerged prominently during the High Medieval period?

Gothic Signup and view all the answers

In which area did Islamic scholars notably contribute during the Middle Ages?

Advancements in algebra and astronomy Signup and view all the answers

How did Origen contribute to the understanding of the Hebrew scriptures?

Managed a Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament Signup and view all the answers

What did the term 'Universitas Scholarium' refer to in Medieval education?

An integrated system of schools and knowledge Signup and view all the answers

What principle do physical pleasures violate, according to the content provided?

They are considered sinful and corrupt spirituality Signup and view all the answers

Which technology was developed by Gutenberg in 1450?

A modern printing press Signup and view all the answers

What did Neo-Platonism primarily focus on in Plato's philosophy?

Mystical aspects while minimizing rational components Signup and view all the answers

What was a primary goal of the Teutonic Order established in 1190?

To defend access to the Holy Land Signup and view all the answers

What was St. Augustine's approach to understanding the moral dimension of human existence?

Emphasizing the importance of divine law and free will Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophical approach sought to reconcile faith with reason during the Middle Ages?

Scholasticism Signup and view all the answers

What did Plotinus assert about the relationship between the soul and the universe?

The universe exists within the soul. Signup and view all the answers

What marked the division between the High Medieval and Late Medieval periods?

The Black Death Signup and view all the answers

Which concept did Claudius Galenus further develop from Hippocratesian theory?

The theory of humors into four temperaments Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Church as an institution in early Christianity?

It provided order and organization for both individual and social behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which early Christian figure defended the doctrine of the church and exemplified charity toward the poor?

Saint Ambrose Signup and view all the answers

What role did the papacy assume during the gradual disintegration of the Western empire?

A source of spiritual guidance Signup and view all the answers

What unique contribution did Saint Jerome make to the Christian scriptures?

Translated the Bible into Latin Signup and view all the answers

What did St. Augustine emphasize regarding the faculties of the human soul?

Memory, understanding, and free will Signup and view all the answers

What internal problem did early Christians face?

Dissension among different Christian groups Signup and view all the answers

What is described as the essence that defines human existence in Neo-Platonism?

The Soul Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of the Crusades in relation to intellectual life in Western Europe?

They facilitated the return of classical Greek scholarship to Europe. Signup and view all the answers

What led to the fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire after Charlemagne's death?

Family disputes over his vast empire. Signup and view all the answers

What role did the Church play during the Middle Ages in Western Europe?

It was a leading institution preserving order and intellectualism. Signup and view all the answers

Which event marked the official split between the Latin and Greek Churches?

The Schism of 1054. Signup and view all the answers

What significant religious event occurred during the reign of Charlemagne?

The crowning of Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor. Signup and view all the answers

How did the Byzantine Empire influence Western Europe during the Middle Ages?

By preserving and translating the writings of Greek scholarship. Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the decline of the Roman Empire that led into the Early Middle Ages?

Widespread anarchy and the collapse of Roman law. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of monasticism during the Middle Ages?

It preserved knowledge through scholarly activities. Signup and view all the answers

What marked the emergence of mercantile economics in Western Europe?

The conclusion of the Crusades and opening of trade routes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the nature of medieval music?

It emphasized religious themes and was centralized in monastic settings. Signup and view all the answers

What characterized the spread of Islam during the Early Middle Ages?

It expanded rapidly with a focus on trade and intellectual exchange. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the situation of Jews during the Early Middle Ages?

They faced dispersal and discrimination across Europe. Signup and view all the answers

How did the Papacy gain power during the Middle Ages?

Through the reform movements aimed at clergy discipline. Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of the Huns' invasion on the stability of Europe?

It created a state of anarchy and constant fear in the territories affected. Signup and view all the answers

What philosophical shift did St. Thomas Aquinas advocate in his theological approach?

The reconciliation of faith with reason through empirical studies Signup and view all the answers

What notable teaching method did Albertus Magnus employ that was considered controversial during his time?

Teaching the philosophy of Aristotle without restrictions Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Roger Bacon's empirical studies?

Practical applications of optics and sensory experiences Signup and view all the answers

How did the Middle Ages transform the perception of human existence?

By instilling a belief in the transient nature of life and the hope for eternal life Signup and view all the answers

In contrast to traditional Augustinian theology, what aspect did Aquinas accept regarding knowledge acquisition?

Knowledge is gained through empirical experience of the physical world Signup and view all the answers

What were the implications of the Hundred Years' War on the Church's authority?

It led to challenges against papal authority due to political intrigues Signup and view all the answers

What was a key element of the Renaissance as it emerged in Italy around 1350?

The rebirth of hedonism and materialistic values Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of Roger Bacon's work was most criticized by his contemporaries?

His rebellion against the Franciscan rules of humility Signup and view all the answers

What principle concerning the body and soul did St. Thomas Aquinas emphasize?

The body is the habitat for the immortal soul and must be cared for Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the schism within the Church have on religious authority during the late Middle Ages?

It weakened the unifying moral authority of the papacy Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of the medieval period is notably evident in the culture of virtuous knights and troubadours?

An idealization of women and romantic behavior Signup and view all the answers

What did the term 'compositum' refer to in Aquinas's philosophy?

The unity of body and mind in human beings Signup and view all the answers

What defines the historical significance of Joan d'Arc during the Hundred Years' War?

She served as a symbol of hope and national pride for France Signup and view all the answers

What philosophical approach did Aquinas employ in defining the relationship between faith and science?

Faith and science can coexist without conflict Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Presentism

A perspective that judges historical events based on contemporary values.

Historicism

A non-judgmental approach to understanding historical events within their specific context of time and place.
Aims to avoid imposing present-day values on past events.

Zeitgeist/Ortgeist Hypothesis

The "spirit of the times" (Zeitgeist) and "spirit of the place" (Ortgeist) influence events and ideas.
Zeitgeist refers to the prevailing climate of opinions and attitudes in a particular era.
Ortgeist refers to the prevailing climate of opinions and attitudes in a specific community or country.

Special Person Hypothesis

Extraordinary individuals shape history.
Also known as the "great person model."

Cyclical Repetitions Hypothesis

History repeats itself in cycles, with events and ideas reappearing in new forms.

Randomness (Chaos) Hypothesis

Historical events occur randomly, without discernible patterns or predictability.
"History makes itself" - historical processes are self-generating.

Anthropomorphism

Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.
Likely used by early humans to understand other individuals, animals, and objects.

Animism

Explaining an organism's behavior as guided by a powerful spirit (anima or pneuma) within it.

Magic

Belief that spirits can influence other spirits or entities.
Spirits may temporarily detach from their bodies.
Traveling spirits have power over other beings and objects.

Religion

A system of beliefs about a universal spirit and the human soul's role within it.
The human soul belongs to an eternal spirit (God).
Humans possess divine privileges (self-awareness, free will, creativity) and duties (responsibility, caring for others, protecting life).
Awareness of existence and its limitations creates fear of death and hope for eternity.

Philosophy

The love of wisdom; advanced reasoning about the universe and humanity's place in it.
Seeks to understand the nature of the universe, human perception, our role, and meaning of existence.

Science

A system of principles and methods for gathering data and drawing conclusions about natural phenomena.
Scientific psychology investigates behavioral and mental mechanisms through biological, sociocultural, and experiential perspectives.
Science is an ongoing process of inquiry, striving for but not attaining absolute truth.
Goals of science include description, prediction, control, and explanation (cause-and-effect relationships).

Three Generalizations in Science

Observational law: describes repeatable coincidences of non-measurable events.
Correlational law: statistically describes coincidences between measurable variables, allowing prediction.
Causal law: experimentally identifies coincidences between measurable variables, allowing prediction, control, and explanation.

Newtonian Science

Emphasis on observational data rather than hypothetical explanations.
Laws are mathematical summaries of observations, not causal explanations.

Basic Scientific Assumptions

The universe operates according to consistent, discoverable laws.
The universe is comprehensible.

Logical Positivism

Scientific explanations are deductive inferences from scientific laws, generally ex-post-facto explanations.
Critiqued for potentially being a "mirror reversal" of predictions and not necessarily capturing true causal explanations.

Aristotle's Four Causes

Material cause: the substance from which a thing is made.
Formal cause: the shape or structure of a thing.
Efficient cause: the direct cause of an event.
Final cause: the purpose or goal of an action or entity.

Multiple Factors in Psychology

Single reactions (R^1) are influenced by numerous factors (stimulus, prior experience, visceral sensations, personality).
Behavioral styles (B) are more predictable and are a function of personality.

The Term "Psychology"

Aristotle's Peri Psyches ("About the Soul") preceded the term psychology.
The Byzantine monk Marko Marulic used the term "psychologia" in a Latin treatise.
Psychology remained a branch of philosophy until Wilhelm Wundt established it as a science in 1879.
Behaviorism (John Watson) and later social cognitivism (Alfred Bandura) influenced the field.

Methodological and Philosophical Issues in Psychology

Psychology evolved from various disciplines like mythology, art, religion, philosophy, medicine, and pure sciences.
Modern psychology, aspiring to be a science, embraces a nomothetic (general laws) versus idiographic (individual cases) approach.

Areas of Inquiry Shared by Psychology and Philosophy

Ontology: What is real? (matter, mind, or both)
Epistemology: How do we know? (sources of knowledge: experience, reason, intuition)
Ethics: How should we live?

Schools of Thought in Ontology

Monism: One fundamental reality (materialism or idealism).
- Materialism: Matter is primary, other phenomena are reduced to material processes.
  - Epiphenomenalism: Mental events are byproducts of material processes.
  - Double Aspecticism: Spirit and nature are different aspects of a single reality.
- Idealism: Ideas or consciousness are primary.
Pluralism: Multiple, equally valid realities (dualism, occasionalism, emergentism, attributable pluralism).
- Dualism: Two fundamentally different realities (matter and spirit).
- Occasionalism: Interactions between body and mind are caused by God's interventions.
- Emergentism: New qualities arise from combining existing elements.
- Attributive Pluralism: As many realities as there are concepts.

Epistemological Concepts

A priori knowledge: Prior to and independent of experience (nativism).
A posteriori knowledge: Derived from experience (empiricism).

Rationalism

Emphasizes reason as a source for knowledge.
Often contrasts with empiricism, which emphasizes experience.
A methodological norm in science.
Critics argue that rational processes can be subjective and biased, especially within a particular or existing paradigm.

Paradigm (in Science)

A set of assumptions, values, and methods within which scientists operate, with two components.
Disciplinary matrix: fundamental unquestioned assumptions.
Shared exemplars: models of good research.

Scientific Revolutions (Kuhn)

Normal science: Scientists work within a paradigm.
Anomaly: Discrepancies arise that challenge the paradigm.
Crisis: Doubts about the paradigm increase.
Revolution: The paradigm is overturned, replaced with a new one.

Anarchist Theory of Science

Multiple and competing paradigms coexist.
No prescribed methodology or constraints.

Karl Popper's Rationalism

Science is a rational process of formulating falsifiable hypotheses.
Strong emphasis on the importance of testing ideas through observation and experimentation.

Ancient Hebrews

History from 2100 BC, including patriarchs, prophets, kings, and a diaspora.
Monotheism, divine law (Ten Commandments), tribal solidarity.

Confucianism

Emphasis on ethics, obedience, loyalty, tradition, and social hierarchy.
Celestial laws and ethics are immutable.

Daoism

Individuality is a microcosm reflecting the universal macrocosm.
Union with the universe attainable through meditation.
Importance of harmony with nature.

Buddhism

Teachings from Hinduism, Daoism, and Confucianism.
Achieving enlightenment through virtuous conduct, meditation, and detachment from the material world.
Belief in reincarnation, hierarchy, and a contemplative lifestyle.

Hinduism

Vedas are sacred texts; polytheism.
Emphasis on virtuous conduct for reincarnation to higher paths, including Nirvana.
Spiritual attainment through meditation.

Zoroastrianism

Monotheistic religion; God (Ahura-Mazda) versus a demon (Angro-Mainyus).
Free will and divine law.
Illness viewed as demonic influence.

Minoans & Mycenaeans

Early European civilizations (Minoan) collapsed around 1450 BC.
Mycenaeans and Dorians (a later Greek civilization) emerged afterward, dominated by war and cultural stagnation.

Mythology

Polytheistic beliefs based on hierarchical relationships among gods.
Gods' actions reflect human qualities.
Fate and human behavior influenced by the gods.

Athens

Athenian dominance, Persian Wars, and the birth of Classic Greek civilization.
Rise of arts, athletic games.

Pre-Socratic Philosophers

Cosmologists/Physicists: Sought fundamental elements (physis) for the universe.
Thales: water as fundamental physis.
Anaximander: Apeiron as fundamental physis.
Anaximenes: Air as fundamental physis.
Heraclitus: Fire as fundamental physis, change as essential.
Zeno: Arguments against change and motion.
Democritus: Atomism, materialism, no afterlife.
Empedocles: Elements (fire, air, water, earth), love/strife.
Biologists: Focused on the human body, health, and harmony.
Alcmaeon: Brain as centre of perception.
Hippocrates: Natural causes of disease, holistic treatment.

Mathematics (Ancient Greece)

Pythagoras: Mathematical essence of reality, emphasis on rational thinking and spiritual contemplation.

Greek Philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)

Sophism: Relativism, different cultures different perceptions of truth, beauty and goodness, truth is not objective.
Socrates: Inductive reasoning & method of questioning; "know thyself"; ignorance.
Plato: Theory of Forms, sensory impressions as imperfect reflections of ideal forms; three-part soul (rational, spirited, appetitive).
Aristotle: Empiricism, synthesis of experience and reasoning; hylomorphism; teleology; soul's functions, memory processes, sensory perceptions, imagination and thought, dreams, motivation and values; scala natura.

Greco-Roman Philosophies of Tranquility

Cynicism: Natural living, rejection of social norms.
Skepticism: Distrust of sensory knowledge, accepting uncertainty.
Epicureanism: Happiness through moderation and tranquility.
Stoicism: Accepting fate, mastery of emotions.

Gnosticism & Hermeticism

Gnosticism: Belief in secret knowledge.
Hermeticism: Belief in ancient Egyptian wisdom.

Neoplatonism

Plotinus's hierarchy of reality, from The One to emanations like intelligence, souls, and finally to the material world.
Emphasis on introspection, meditation, and faith as means to understanding.

Roman Period

Romans valued practical application of knowledge over investigation.

Jesus and Christianity

Religious and social teachings, including altruism, love for all people.
St. Paul: Interpretation of Jesus' teachings, emphasizing God's plan and salvation.

Saint Augustine

Synthesis of Neoplatonism, Stoicism, and Christianity.
Emphasis on faith, reason, free will, and the soul's search for eternal truth.

Medieval Period

Rise of Christianity, decline of Rome, spread of Islam, monastic orders, emergence of universities (Universitas Scholarium): scholasticism.

Islamic Scholars

Preserved and developed Greek scholarship.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Canon of Medicine, reconciled Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic faith.
Maimonides: Reconciled Jewish faith with rationalism.

Scholasticism

Synthesis of reason and faith in theological inquiries.

Late Medieval Period

Challenges to church authority, rise of individualism, Renaissance, Hundred Years' War.
Development of universities.

Renaissance

Rebirth of interest in classical learning, art, and humanism.
Emphasis on human potential and earthly achievement.
Impact on philosophy, art, and other fields.

Renaissance Artists (Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael)

Michelangelo: Paintings and sculptures
Leonardo da Vinci: Diverse interests, artistic and scientific contributions.
Raphael: Paintings, including classic interpretations.

Renaissance Music

Development of new musical forms, religious and secular.
Composers like Palestrina and Monteverdi.

Middle Ages Elsewhere

Developments in China, the Mongol Empire, and pre-Columbian America.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Test your understanding of key concepts in historical analysis, such as presentism, cyclical repetitions, and animism. This quiz will challenge your knowledge of various hypotheses that explain the nature of historical events and changes. Engage with thought-provoking questions that explore the intersection of time, place, and belief systems.