2010 Topic 1
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following models emphasizes the combination of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors in explaining disease and symptoms?

  • Humoural theory
  • Mechanistic model
  • Biopsychosocial model (correct)
  • Biomedical model

    • In the context of health definitions, what does the term 'health as function' imply?

  • Health depends only on physical fitness and vitality.
  • Health is purely a mental state and emotional wellbeing.
  • Health relates to one’s ability to perform duties and activities. (correct)
  • Health is identified by the absence of disease symptoms.

    • Which perspective suggests that the mind and body should be viewed as one unit rather than as separate entities?

  • Reductionism
  • Dualism
  • Mechanism
  • Monoism (correct)

    • According to Bauman's three types of responses regarding health, which one correlates most closely with physical fitness?

    <p>Performance capabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of health is described as the ability to recover quickly from illness or surgery?

    <p>Health as a reserve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of health does the 1947 definition notably omit?

    <p>Socio-economic and cultural influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Hippocrates conceptualize illness?

    <p>A balance between four bodily fluids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model introduced a dualism perspective between the mind and body?

    <p>Biomedical model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the bio psychosocial model recognize about health?

    <p>Health is influenced by a combination of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the three main types of responses identified by Bauman in her study on lay theories of health?

    <p>Absence of disease, general well-being, and physical capability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines the psychosocial aspect of health?

    <p>Mental state characterized by harmony and pride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of cognitive development, what characterizes the preoperational stage as defined by Piaget?

    <p>Development of symbolic thought and simple logic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the WHO definition of health is accurate?

    <p>It defines health as complete physical, mental, and social well-being.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates collectivist societies from individualist societies in terms of health perceptions?

    <p>Collectivist societies often attribute health to societal influences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which cognitive development stage do children begin to recognize that their behavior can lead to illness, according to Piaget?

    <p>Concrete Operational Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of illness concepts developed during the formal operational stage of adolescents?

    <p>Identification of multiple physical causes for illness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is NOT included in the model of successful aging?

    <p>Environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of cognitive development involves the use of abstract thought and deductive reasoning?

    <p>Formal operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about the understanding of health among children?

    <p>Children have a fully developed concept of health from infancy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the implications of the ageing population?

    <p>Chronic diseases are more prevalent in the ageing population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period is the 'empty nest' syndrome most likely to emerge?

    <p>Middle age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What specifically does the lay model of successful ageing predict about quality of life?

    <p>It is the strongest predictor of quality of life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of illness understanding do children under age seven typically exhibit?

    <p>Magical thinking regarding illness causes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best summarizes Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Individuals experience cognitive development in a fixed sequence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is primarily associated with the disproportionate health problems faced by low socio-economic status (SES) groups?

    <p>Inadequate diet and lack of exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is noted as a potential impact of living in poverty?

    <p>Vicious circle of ill-health and poverty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which health-related behavior is typically less prevalent among lower SES groups compared to higher SES groups?

    <p>Frequent health check-ups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model explains that low socio-economic status causes health issues due to the conditions of poverty?

    <p>Social Causation Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of working conditions, which of the following is linked to excess mortality in low SES groups?

    <p>Inconsistent social controls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect is described as generally resulting in better health outcomes for persons born overseas compared to Australia-born persons?

    <p>Healthy Migrant Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age range do children begin to understand the causal sequence of illness, including the concept of internalization?

    <p>8 to 11 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the formal operational stage, how is illness typically understood by adolescents?

    <p>In terms of physiological responses and environmental interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception among adults regarding their conceptualization of illness compared to that of adolescents?

    <p>Adults may hold onto cognitively simplistic explanations of illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key psychological resource associated with successful aging?

    <p>Optimism and self-efficacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What relationship does the content suggest between socioeconomic status and health outcomes in aging populations?

    <p>Lower socioeconomic status is linked to poorer health outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon is described as being experienced by middle-aged individuals, often triggered by life transitions?

    <p>Empty nest syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What model includes both social engagement and physical functioning as components of successful aging?

    <p>Biomedical model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the relationship between health differentials and socioeconomic status according to the information provided?

    <p>Wealthy nations generally have better health outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested as a complication of overprotectiveness in parents of sick children?

    <p>Deterioration in child's social and personal development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the elderly population is reported to have at least one chronic condition?

    <p>85%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best reflects Bauman's perspective on health?

    <p>Health encompasses emotional well-being and absence of disease symptoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following responses does NOT align with Bauman's view of health?

    <p>Feeling healthy is only about having no medical conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components did Bauman identify as interlinked in her discussion of health?

    <p>Absence of disease, emotional balance, and functional abilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category of health emphasizes the ability to perform daily activities without limitations from illness?

    <p>Health as function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which category of health is most likely associated with individuals who prioritize their physical fitness and vitality, especially among younger respondents?

    <p>Health as physical fitness and vitality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which category is health defined primarily in terms of mental states and emotional satisfaction?

    <p>Health as psychosocial wellbeing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which definition of health revolves around the interpretation of health as an absence of symptoms or medical visits?

    <p>Health as not ill</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which health category reflects a belief that familial background can influence one's health recovery processes?

    <p>Health as a reserve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Westernized treatment approach differ in its view of human nature compared to non-Western approaches?

    <p>It separates the mind, body, and soul into distinct elements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is typically associated with non-Western health treatment models?

    <p>An integration of cultural practices and spiritual beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What implication might arise from the Western division of mind, body, and soul in health treatment?

    <p>It may lead to fragmented care and understanding of health.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way could the integration of mind, body, and soul in non-Western treatments contribute to health outcomes?

    <p>It enhances the patient's emotional and psychological resilience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best captures the philosophical difference between Western and non-Western health paradigms?

    <p>Western paradigms separate and analyze health components individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is responsible for developing a system to measure 'the equivalent of full health'?

    <p>World Health Organization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily measured by the system developed for assessing full health?

    <p>Number of years a person can expect to live in full health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of health does the WHO system aim to quantify?

    <p>Comprehensive health status including physical and mental health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key purpose of the health measurement system developed by WHO?

    <p>To gauge the overall health of populations in terms of years lived in full health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the measurement system developed by WHO differ from traditional health metrics?

    <p>It measures health in terms of years lived free from serious illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of the Social Drift Model regarding health and socio-economic status (SES)?

    <p>Health issues can cause individuals to fall in SES due to job loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the relationship between health problems and employment based on the Social Drift Model?

    <p>Health issues may hinder the ability to maintain employment and living standards.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What consequence does the Social Drift Model predict for individuals experiencing health problems?

    <p>They may experience a decline in socio-economic status.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Social Drift Model, which scenario illustrates the downward socio-economic trend following health problems?

    <p>A person becomes unable to work overtime due to health issues and starts to struggle financially.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What assumption underpins the Social Drift Model regarding the interaction between health and socio-economic status?

    <p>Health problems are a significant factor contributing to lower social status.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors identified by Bacharach et al. contributes to excess mortality in low SES groups?

    <p>Job alienation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kouvonen et al. identified which risk factor associated with poor health outcomes in low SES groups?

    <p>Long working hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the work environment is NOT linked to excess mortality in low SES groups according to the findings?

    <p>Job security</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements related to workplace dynamics is associated with increased health risks in low SES groups?

    <p>Work drink culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which combination of factors would most likely lead to health disadvantages in low SES groups according to the identified research?

    <p>Job alienation and lack of control over work</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor plays the least significant role in contributing to work stress according to Karasek and Theorell?

    <p>Personal coping strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does job autonomy play in the context of work stress according to the framework provided by Karasek and Theorell?

    <p>Affects coping measures for job demands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the relationship between social support and job demands in the context of stress management?

    <p>High social support can mitigate the effects of job demands.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the model by Karasek and Theorell, which combination of factors is most likely to lead to optimal work performance?

    <p>Low job demands and high autonomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be the likely consequence of decreased social support in a high-demand work environment?

    <p>Heightened levels of work stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes women's overall health compared to men's?

    <p>Women have greater resistance to infections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about men's health and lifestyle patterns is accurate?

    <p>Men are more likely to die early from heart disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor contributes to women experiencing more social isolation than men?

    <p>Women often face greater economic disadvantage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What health trend is observed among men compared to women?

    <p>Men typically engage in more health-risk behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way are men's health patterns distinct regarding longevity?

    <p>Men are over three times more likely to die early due to heart disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Models of Health and Illness

    • Stone Age: Disease blamed on evil spirits and divine punishment.
    • Hippocrates (460–377 BC): Proposed the Humoural theory, where illness stemmed from an imbalance of four fluids: yellow bile, phlegm, blood, and black bile.
    • Descartes (1596–1650): Advocated for dualism, separating the mind and body.
    • Biomedical Model: Focuses on identifying underlying pathological causes for diseases and symptoms.
      • Reductionist approach that minimizes the role of the mind in illness, disregarding individual responses.
    • Biopsychosocial Model: Recognizes the interplay of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness (Engel, 1977).
      • Emphasizes the mind’s influence on illness experience, supported by evidence like phantom limb pain and the placebo effect.

    Lay Theories of Health

    • Bauman (1961) identified three main types of health definitions:
      • General sense of well-being
      • Absence of disease symptoms
      • Physical fitness and performance
    • These responses reflect health in terms of feeling, symptom orientation, and performance.

    Social Representations of Health

    • The Health and Lifestyles Survey (Cox et al., 1993) identified six categories of health:
      • Health as not ill: Absence of symptoms and doctor visits.
      • Health as a reserve: Strong family history and quick recovery from procedures.
      • Health as behaviour: External focus on others' healthy habits.
      • Health as physical fitness: Emphasized by younger respondents, particularly for men.
      • Health as psychosocial well-being: Focus on mental state, such as harmony and satisfaction with life.
      • Health as function: Ability to perform duties and live life without limitations.

    Definition of Health and Its Limitations

    • World Health Organization (1947): Defined health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."
    • This definition omits:
      • Socio-economic and cultural influences on health and illness
      • The "psyche" and its role in health experiences.

    Cross-cultural Perspectives on Health

    • Cultures vary in their health belief systems:
      • Holistic explanations: Western medicine separates mind, body, and soul, while non-western cultures integrate these elements.
      • Spiritual explanations: Supernatural forces (e.g., curses) are attributed to illness, uncommon in Western societies.
      • Collectivist vs. individualistic beliefs: Eastern cultures often locate health within a social context, whereas Western cultures focus on personal responsibility.

    Lifespan, Ageing and Beliefs about Health and Illness

    • Growing older does not equate to chronic illness:
      • However, health professionals should be aware of age-related developmental issues.
    • Developmental Theories:
      • **Learning:</strong Permanent change in knowledge or abilities through experience.
      • Experience: The sum of our actions, observations, thoughts, and feelings.
      • Maturation: Development driven by age and maturation, rather than experience.
    • Cognitive Development (Piaget, 1930, 1970): Individuals progress through distinct stages of cognitive development:
      • Sensorimotor (birth–2 years): Experience through senses and movement.
      • Preoperational (2–7 years): Develop symbolic thought, simple logic, and language.
      • Concrete operational (7–11 years): Advance in abstract thought, logic, and mental manipulation.
      • Formal operational (age 12 to adulthood): Develop abstract thinking, imagination, and deductive reasoning.
      • These stages provide a framework for understanding the development of health and illness concepts.

    Development of an Illness Perception (Bibace and Walsh, 1980)

    • Children's understanding of illness progresses with age:
    • Children aged 3–13 were asked questions about:
      • Knowledge: What is a cold?
      • Experience: Have you ever been sick?
      • Attributions: How does one get a cold?
      • Recovery: How does someone get better?
    • Themes of explanation align to Piaget's developmental stages.

    Illness Concept in Sensorimotor and Preoperational Stage Children (under 7)

    • Explanations are often "magical," based on association:
      • Incomprehension: Irrelevant or evasive responses.
      • Phenomenonism: Illness linked to a symptom, with limited understanding of cause and effect (e.g., 'a cold is when you sniff a lot').
      • Contagion: Illness attributed to nearby people or objects, or actions preceding illness (e.g., walking near someone with measles).

    Illness Concept in Concrete Operational Stage Children (8–11 years)

    • Explanations become more concrete, with a causal sequence:
      • Contamination: Illness can have multiple symptoms and results from germ exposure.
      • Internalization: Recognize illness resides within the body, with a partial understanding of symptom occurrence.
      • Children can distinguish between body organs and comprehend basic illness information.
      • They recognize how treatment and personal actions improve health.

    Illness Concept in Formal Operational Stage Adolescents

    • Abstract explanations based on person-environment interactions:
      • Physiological: Understand illness in terms of specific body functions and multiple physical causes.
      • Psychophysiological: Recognize body-mind interactions and the influence of stress, worry, etc., on illness.
      • Many adults may not achieve this level of understanding and rely on simpler explanations.

    Adulthood (17/18+)

    • Piaget did not define additional cognitive stages for adults, but experience and knowledge continue to shape perspectives.
    • Young adulthood: Less risk-taking and greater focus on health-protective behaviors.
    • Middle age: Uncertainty and change, fueled by:
      • Empty nest syndrome: Adjusting to children leaving home.
      • Physical changes: Graying hair, weight gain, stiff joints.

    Ageing and Health

    • Population aged 65+ is rapidly increasing:
      • The United Nations (2013) predicts this group will double to 10% of the global population by 2025.
    • Significant implications for health and social care due to:
      • Increased chronic disease prevalence
      • Increased prevalence of disability and dependence
      • 85% of older adults may have a chronic condition (Woods 2008).

    Successful Ageing

    • Ageing is not inherently negative:
      • Self-concept remains relatively stable.
    • Successful ageing involves:
      • Biomedical influences: Diagnoses, functional ability.
      • Broader biomedical influences: Social engagement and activity.
      • Psychological resources
      • Socio-economic influences
    • Bowling and Iliffe (2006): A lay model of successful ageing, encompassing all influencing factors, is the strongest predictor of Quality of Life:
      • People with this holistic model are 5x more likely to perceive their QoL as “Good.”
      • However, the study primarily included white participants (98%).

    Childhood Illness Concepts

    • Children associate illness with specific symptoms and external factors, lacking understanding of transmission.
    • By 8-11 years old, children develop a concrete understanding of illness based on cause and effect.
    • They recognize germs and internalization of illness, associating symptoms with internal processes.

    Adolescence and Illness

    • Teenagers grasp abstract concepts of illness, understanding the interaction between the individual and environment.
    • They develop a deeper understanding of physiological responses, recognizing multiple physical causes.
    • By age 14+, individuals begin to acknowledge the mind-body connection, recognizing the role of stress and worry.

    Adult Stages of Illness Understanding

    • Many adults don't reach the level of understanding achieved during adolescence, continuing to use simplified explanations.
    • Young adults prioritize health behaviors, engaging in preventive actions and minimizing risk behaviors.
    • Middle age brings a shift in focus towards health as individuals experience physical changes and may face role uncertainty.
    • Later adulthood (65+) marks a period where health and illness become increasingly significant, with a rise in chronic diseases, disability, and dependence.

    Health Differentials and Life Expectancy

    • Global health disparities exist, with richer countries having longer life expectancies and healthier lives.
    • The US, despite its wealth, ranks 29th in average healthy life expectancy, influenced by factors like the HIV epidemic, disparities in health within specific populations, and high rates of tobacco-related cancers.
    • Poverty significantly impacts health globally, contributing factors include poor access to clean water, sanitation, nutrition, and healthcare.

    The Impact of Poverty on Health

    • Poverty breeds ill-health, and ill-health perpetuates poverty, creating a vicious cycle.
    • Two models explain poverty-health relationships: social causation and social drift.
    • Social causation suggests low socioeconomic status (SES) causes health issues due to negative environmental factors.
    • Social drift proposes that health problems lead to lower SES due to inability to maintain employment or living standards.

    Health Behaviors and Social Factors

    • Lower SES groups often engage in more health-damaging behaviors like higher alcohol intake, poorer diets, and less exercise.
    • These differences might be attributed to lower awareness of health risks, limited opportunities, stress associated with poverty, inadequate coping mechanisms, and challenges with self-regulation.
    • Access to healthcare also varies based on SES, with financial barriers, geographic limitations, and cultural influences impacting access.

    Environment and Health

    • Low SES groups often experience poor working and living conditions, contributing to higher rates of accidents, injuries, and poisoning.
    • Renters are more likely to report poor health, higher rates of chronic illness, and increased risk of heart disease compared to homeowners.

    Stress and Health

    • Chronic stress related to low SES can negatively impact health throughout life, starting from childhood and continuing into adulthood.
    • Factors like family instability, overcrowding, poor nutrition, educational disadvantages, and insecure employment contribute to this stress.
    • Work environments also play a role, with low control, long hours, and poor social support increasing health risks.
    • The demand-control model identifies three key factors contributing to work stress: job demands, autonomy, and social support.
    • Poor work-life balance and work-home spillover negatively impact health, increasing anxiety, depression, and physical symptoms.
    • Unemployment is often more stressful than work, with the threat of unemployment also impacting health.
    • Social support can buffer negative health impacts of unemployment, promoting better mental health.

    Minority Status and Health

    • Indigenous Australians experience significantly lower life expectancy compared to non-Indigenous Australians.
    • This disparity is linked to social determinants of health, including higher risk factors, access to healthcare, and racism.
    • The "healthy migrant effect" suggests immigrants often experience better health compared to native-born populations, due to factors like immigration selection, culturally diverse practices, access to healthcare, and strong community support.

    Gender and Health

    • Women generally have longer life expectancies and greater resistance to infections, but experience greater economic disadvantage, social isolation, and access healthcare more frequently, including screenings.
    • Men engage in more health-risk behaviors, have less acute illness, and are more likely to die prematurely due to heart disease.

    Socioeconomic Status and Health

    • Lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups experience significant stress and restrictions in life opportunities.
      • Childhood: Family instability, overcrowding, poor diet, limited educational opportunities
      • Adolescence: Family strife, exposure to smoking, leaving school with poor qualifications, unemployment or low-paid and insecure jobs
      • Adulthood: Hazardous working conditions, financial insecurity, unemployment, low control at work or home, negative social interactions
      • Old Age: Small pensions, inadequate heating, poor quality food
    • Excess mortality in low SES groups may be linked to stressful working environments
      • Factors: Inconsistent social controls, job alienation, job stress, work drink culture, lack of control over work, long hours, poor social support
    • Job Strain Model: Explains the relationship between work demands, job autonomy, and social support and stress.
      • High job demands with low autonomy and low social support lead to greater stress.
      • Examples: School teachers (high demands, high autonomy, high support), waiters (high demands, low autonomy, low support)
    • Work-life balance and work-home spillover are associated with poor health.
      • Impacts: Mental health issues, physical health issues (sleep, fatigue), can affect the health of the family
    • Unemployment is even more stressful than working; the threat of unemployment negatively impacts health.
    • Social support can mitigate the negative effects of unemployment.

    Minority Status and Health

    • Indigenous Australians have a lower life expectancy than non-Indigenous Australians by about 10 years.
      • Reasons: Social determinants of health, higher risk factors, difficulty accessing culturally appropriate healthcare, racism
    • Healthy migrant effect: Persons born overseas generally have better health than those born in Australia.
      • Factors: Social determinants of health, access to healthcare, lifestyle factors

    Gender and Health

    • Women typically live 5 years longer than men, have greater resistance to infections, but have higher relative risk of dying from various illnesses compared to men.
      • Explanations:
        • Biological differences: Hormones, testosterone levels influencing heart disease risk.
        • Physiological response to stress: Men may have a stronger reaction to stress than women.
        • Behavioral differences: Men engage in more health-risk behaviors and are less likely to seek medical help.
        • Economic and social factors: Women experience more economic disadvantage and social isolation.

    Health Equity

    • Health inequities are avoidable and unjust differences in health arising from social, economic, and environmental conditions.
      • Social inequities: Unfair treatment based on race, gender, immigration status, leading to unequal opportunities.
      • Economic disparities: Influence neighborhoods and access to resources, impacting health outcomes.
      • Health behaviors: Lack of education or support can lead to unhealthy behaviors, contributing to health disparities.
      • Genetics: Can predispose individuals to certain health issues.
    • Achieving health equity involves:
      • Eliminating avoidable health disparities
      • Creating fair health opportunities for everyone
      • Ensuring equal access to resources
      • Investing in low-income neighborhoods
    • True health equity is when everyone can reach their full health potential.

    Health Defined

    • Bauman explored the definition of health in 1961, asking “What does being healthy mean?”
    • Three main responses emerged:
      • A general sense of well-being
      • The absence of symptoms of disease
      • The ability to perform activities associated with physical fitness
    • Bauman argued that these responses demonstrate the relationship between health and feeling, a symptom-oriented approach, and performance capabilities.

    Social Representations of Health

    • The Health and Lifestyles survey (Cox et al. 1993) identified six categories of social perceptions of health:
      • Health as not ill (absence of symptoms): Individuals perceive themselves healthy if they experience no symptoms and do not have frequent doctor visits.
      • Health as a reserve (inherited health): Individuals feel healthy due to their strong family history and quick recovery from medical procedures.
      • Health as behaviour (healthy lifestyle): Individuals perceive themselves healthy if they maintain a healthy lifestyle, including exercise and proper diet, and often apply this definition to others, attributing health to healthy behaviors.
      • Health as physical fitness and vitality (youth-oriented): Younger respondents often associate health with physical fitness and vitality, particularly when referring to males.
      • Health as psychosocial wellbeing (mental state): Individuals define health based on their mental state, such as feeling content, being in harmony with themselves, or enjoying social interactions.
      • Health as function (ability to perform duties): Individuals perceive themselves healthy if they are able to carry out their daily activities and responsibilities without physical limitations and ill health.

    Health Models and Perspectives

    • Biopsychosocial model: Emphasizes the interplay of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors in understanding disease and symptoms.
    • Health as function: Defines health as the ability to carry out daily activities and roles effectively.
    • Holistic perspective: Views the mind and body as interconnected rather than separate entities.

    Understanding Health

    • Bauman's three types of responses:
      • Physical fitness: Correlates with the "functional" response, emphasizing physical capabilities.
      • Mental wellness: Relates to the "psychological" response, focusing on emotional well-being and stress management.
      • Social connectedness: Aligns with the "social" response, prioritizing interpersonal relationships and community involvement.
    • Resilience: The ability to recover quickly from illness or surgery.
    • 1947 definition omission: The 1947 definition of health lacked a social dimension, focusing solely on physical well-being.

    Historical Perspectives on Health

    • Hippocrates: Conceptualized illness as an imbalance in the body's humors (fluids).
    • Cartesian dualism: Introduced a separation between the mind and body.
    • Biopsychosocial model recognition: Recognized the influence of social and psychological factors on health.

    Understanding of Health Across Lifespans

    • Preoperational stage: Children in this stage engage in symbolic thought but struggle with abstract concepts.
    • WHO definition of health: Emphasizes complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease.
    • Individualist vs. collectivist societies: Individualistic societies prioritize personal health, while collectivist societies value communal health and well-being.
    • Concrete operational stage: Children in this stage begin to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between behavior and illness.
    • Formal operational stage: Adolescents at this stage develop abstract thinking skills and may conceptualize illness in more complex ways.
    • Model of successful aging: Emphasizes physical, psychological, and social well-being, along with active engagement in life.
    • Formal operational stage: Characterized by the use of abstract thought and deductive reasoning.
    • Common misconception about children's understanding of health: Children often believe illness is caused by external factors like bad air or germs.
    • Implication of an ageing population: Increasing demand for healthcare services and resources.
    • Empty nest syndrome: Likely to emerge during the midlife phase when children leave home.
    • Lay model of successful aging: Predicts that maintaining quality of life is associated with positive health outcomes.
    • Children under age 7: Typically understand illness as a consequence of external factors.
    • Piaget's theory of cognitive development: Outlines stages of cognitive development, including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

    Socioeconomic Status and Health

    • Disproportionate health problems in low SES groups: Primarily associated with limited access to resources, poor living conditions, and stress.
    • Impacts of poverty: High rates of chronic illness, decreased life expectancy, and higher mortality rates.
    • Health-related behavior less prevalent in lower SES groups: Frequent health screenings and preventative measures.
    • Model explaining SES-health link: "Conditions of poverty" model, emphasizing the detrimental effects of poverty on health.
    • Working conditions and mortality: Hazardous work environments contribute to excess mortality in low SES groups.
    • Effect of overseas birth on health outcomes: Immigrants generally have better health outcomes than those born in Australia.

    Understanding of Illness Across Lifespans

    • Age range for understanding illness: Children begin to grasp the causal link between behavior and illness around the age of 7.
    • Formal operational stage understanding of illness: Adolescents in this stage tend to perceive illness in terms of internal processes and physical changes.
    • Common misconception among adults: Adults may overestimate the extent to which adolescents understand illness.

    Successful Aging

    • Key psychological resource: Optimism and a positive outlook.
    • Socioeconomic status and health in ageing: Individuals with higher SES often have better health outcomes when they are older.
    • Midlife phenomenon: "Midlife review" is a period of self-reflection and reevaluation, often triggered by major life transitions.
    • Model of successful aging components: Combines social engagement and physical functioning.
    • Relationship between health differentials and SES: Lower SES groups experience greater health disparities.
    • Complication of overprotectiveness in parents of sick children: May hinder children's development of coping skills.

    Health Perspectives and Beliefs

    • Percentage of elderly population with at least one chronic condition: A significant portion of the elderly population (upwards of 80%) has one or more chronic conditions.
    • Bauman's perspective on health: Emphasizes the multidimensional nature of health.
    • Response NOT aligning with Bauman's view of health: A purely medical definition that focuses solely on the absence of disease.
    • Components interlinked by Bauman: Physical, psychological, and social aspects of health.
    • Functional health: Emphasizes being able to carry out everyday tasks without limitations from illness.
    • Vitality health: Focuses on physical fitness and overall vitality, particularly among younger individuals.
    • Mental health: Defines health in terms of mental well-being, emotional satisfaction, and stress management.
    • Absence of symptoms health: Views health as the absence of symptoms or sick visits.
    • Familial influence on health: Reflects a belief that familial background can impact health recovery.

    Western and Non-Western Health Paradigms

    • Western treatment approach: Views human nature as distinct from nature, emphasizing a separation between the mind, body, and soul.
    • Characteristics of non-Western health treatment models: Often integrate the mind, body, and soul, and may involve practices like traditional medicine, spirituality, and holistic therapies.
    • Implication from separating mind, body, and soul: May hinder a holistic understanding of health and well-being.
    • Benefits of integrating mind, body, and soul: Potential for a more comprehensive approach to healing.
    • Philosophical difference between Western and non-Western paradigms: Western approach often emphasizes scientific and medical perspectives, while non-Western approaches may incorporate spiritual, cultural, and holistic principles.

    Health Models and Perspectives

    • Biopsychosocial Model: This model emphasizes the interplay of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.
    • Health as Function: This concept defines health by an individual's capacity to engage in daily activities and roles.
    • Mind-Body Unity: This perspective views the mind and body as interconnected parts rather than separate entities.
    • Bauman's Responses to Health:
      • Physical Fitness: Correlates with the response emphasizing physical activity and maintenance.
      • Other Responses: Include mental wellbeing and social factors.
    • Resilience: This aspect of health refers to the capacity for rapid recovery from illness or surgery.
    • 1947 Definition of Health: Notably omitted the psychological and social aspects of health.
    • Hippocrates' Illness Concept: Illness was seen as an imbalance of bodily humors.
    • Cartesian Dualism: This model introduced a separation between the mind and body.
    • Biopsychosocial Model Recognition: Recognized that health is a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.
    • Bauman's Three Types of Responses: These responses illustrate diverse perspectives on health: physical, mental, and social.
    • Psychosocial Aspect of Health: This aspect encompasses social interactions, emotional states, and psychological wellbeing.

    Cognitive Development and Health Understanding

    • Preoperational Stage (Piaget): Characterized by egocentric thinking and the inability to grasp abstract concepts.
    • WHO Definition of Health: States that health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
    • Collectivist vs. Individualist Societies:
      • Collectivist: Emphasize the importance of group wellbeing and social harmony.
      • Individualist: Focus on individual autonomy and self-reliance.
    • Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget): Children begin to understand the causal link between behavior and illness.
    • Formal Operational Stage (Piaget): Illness is understood as a complex interaction of factors and involves abstract reasoning.
    • Successful Aging Model:
      • Factors: Include social engagement, physical function, mental health, and cognitive ability.
      • Exceptions: This model typically excludes genetic predisposition.
    • Formal Operational Stage (Piaget): This stage involves abstract thought, deductive reasoning, and the ability to consider multiple perspectives.
    • Child Misconception of Health: Often perceive illness as a result of external factors rather than internal processes.
    • Ageing Population Implications: Increase in healthcare costs and a greater need for social support systems.
    • Empty Nest Syndrome: Most likely to occur when children leave home, potentially leading to feelings of loneliness or emptiness for parents.
    • Lay Model of Successful Aging: Predicts a high quality of life characterized by physical and mental health, social engagement, and adaptability.
    • Child Illness Understanding (Under Age Seven): Typically exhibit an understanding of illness as a magical or external punishment.
    • Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Proposes a series of stages through which children progress in their thinking and understanding of the world.

    Socioeconomic Status and Health Disparities

    • Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Health: Lower SES is linked to poorer health outcomes and a higher prevalence of chronic diseases.
    • Poverty and Health Impacts:
      • Limited access to healthcare
      • Poor nutrition
      • Stress and mental health issues
    • Health Behaviors and SES: Health-promoting behaviors like regular exercise and preventative healthcare are less common in lower SES groups.
    • SES and Health Model: This model proposes that chronic diseases are caused by the conditions of poverty, such as poor housing and limited access to resources.
    • Working Conditions and Mortality: Hazardous working environments and chronic stress are linked to increased mortality rates in lower SES groups.
    • Immigration and Health: Persons born overseas generally experience better health outcomes compared to those born in Australia.
    • Causal Sequence Comprehension in Children: Develop this understanding around the age of seven, linking behaviors to illness and internal factors.
    • Adolescent Illness Understanding (Formal Operational Stage): Characterized by a more nuanced understanding of illness as a complex interaction of factors, including biological and environmental influences.
    • Adult Misconception about Illness: Often overestimate their own health knowledge and understanding compared to adolescents.

    Successful Aging and Psychological Factors

    • Successful Aging Psychological Resource: A key resource is psychological resilience, the ability to adapt and cope with life challenges.
    • Socioeconomic Status and Aging: Stronger social support systems and better access to healthcare are linked to positive health outcomes in senior years.
    • Midlife Transitions: These transitions, often marked by significant life changes, can impact mood and overall well-being.
    • Successful Aging Model Components: This model recognizes the importance of both social engagement and physical functioning for successful aging.
    • Health Differentials and Socioeconomic Status: Lower SES is associated with poorer health outcomes and a greater risk of chronic disease.
    • Overprotective Parents of Sick Children: Can hinder a child's development of autonomy and coping mechanisms, leading to potential complications in adulthood.
    • Chronic Conditions in Elderly: An estimated 90% of the elderly population experiences at least one chronic condition.

    Bauman's Perspectives on Health

    • Bauman's View of Health: Views health as a multi-faceted concept encompassing physiological, psychological, and sociological aspects.
    • Responses NOT Aligned with Bauman: Responses that focus solely on physical fitness or medical diagnosis do not align fully with Bauman's holistic view.
    • Interlinked Components (Bauman): Bauman identified physical fitness, mental well-being, and social integration as interlinked components of health.
    • Health as Function: This category prioritizes an individual's ability to perform daily tasks and activities without limitations.
    • Health as Vitality: Individuals in this category strongly value physical fitness and overall vitality, especially younger respondents.
    • Health as Emotional Wellbeing: This category emphasizes mental states and emotional satisfaction.
    • Health as Absence of Symptoms: This definition focuses on medical visits and symptoms as indicators of health.
    • Health as Family Legacy: This belief suggests that family background significantly influences one's health recovery processes.

    Western vs. Non-Western Health Paradigms

    • Westernized Treatment Approach: Sees human nature as mechanical and focuses on specific organs and functions.
    • Non-Western Treatment Models: Typically integrate mind, body, and spirit in their approach to healthcare.
    • Potential Implication of Western Division: Can lead to overlooking interconnectedness of mind-body-spirit, potentially hindering healing.
    • Integration of Mind-Body-Soul in Non-Western Treatments: May contribute to a holistic approach that promotes overall well-being.
    • Philosophical Difference: Western medicine emphasizes empirical evidence, while non-Western approaches may incorporate spiritual and traditional beliefs.

    Measuring Health with the WHO system

    • Full Health Measurement System: Developed by the WHO, this system aims to measure the overall health of individuals and populations beyond traditional medical indicators.
    • System Measurement Focus: The system quantifies health by considering both physical and mental wellbeing, as well as social function.
    • WHO System Measurement Aim: Quantifies overall health, encompassing a person's ability to function and participate in daily activities.
    • Key Purpose of WHO System: Provides a comprehensive and more nuanced understanding of health compared to traditional metrics.
    • Difference from Traditional Metrics: This system expands beyond physical health and incorporates subjective measures of well-being and functional ability.

    Social Drift Model

    • The social drift model suggests that health problems can lead to a decline in socioeconomic status.
    • This occurs because individuals with health issues may struggle to maintain employment or work the hours needed to maintain their standard of living.
    • As a result, they may experience a downward shift in their socioeconomic position.

    Work and Health - SES Differentials

    • Lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups experience higher mortality rates than higher SES groups.
    • Work environments play a significant role in this health disparity.
    • Bacharach et al. (2004) identified several aspects of working environments that contribute to health problems in lower SES groups:
      • Inconsistent social controls: Lack of clear rules and regulations or inconsistent enforcement of existing rules, leading to uncertainty and stress.
      • Job alienation: Feeling disconnected from work, lacking a sense of purpose or belonging, and experiencing low levels of job satisfaction.
      • Job stress: High demands and pressure, lack of control, and conflicting priorities, leading to psychological and physiological strain.
      • Work drink culture: Normalization of alcohol consumption in the workplace, contributing to alcohol-related health problems and potentially exacerbating other work-related stressors.
    • Kouvonen et al. (2005) highlighted the following aspects of working environments that contribute to poorer health:
      • Lack of control over work: Limited autonomy in decision-making, feeling restricted in how work is performed, and experiencing low levels of control over work processes and outcomes.
      • Long working hours: Extended workdays, shift work, and excessive overtime, leading to fatigue, sleep disturbances, and increased risk of chronic diseases.
      • Poor social support: Lack of positive social interactions and relationships at work, reducing emotional well-being and coping mechanisms.

    Job Stress

    • Job stress is influenced by three key factors: job demands, autonomy, and social support.
    • Job demands refer to the pressures and expectations placed on an individual in their work.
    • Job autonomy refers to the extent to which an individual has freedom and control over their work.
    • Social support refers to the availability of help and assistance from others.

    Gender and Health

    • Women generally live longer than Australian men.
    • Women typically have greater resistance to infections.
    • Women are more likely to experience economic disadvantage and social isolation.
    • Women tend to access healthcare more frequently, including for screenings.
    • Men are more likely to engage in health-risk behaviours.
    • Although men have less acute illness, they have a higher mortality risk.
    • Men are more than three times as likely to die prematurely from heart disease.

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    Test your understanding of various health models and their interpretations of well-being. This quiz covers concepts such as the biopsychosocial model, health definitions, and perspectives from notable figures in health history. Explore the interplay of physical, cultural, psychological, and social factors in health.

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