Harappan Civilization: Excavations and Extent

• The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), stands out as a significant archaeological discovery of the 20th century.
• It got its name from Harappa, the modern site in West Punjab, Pakistan, where it was first discovered.
• It existed as an urban culture around 2500 to 1750 BCE.

Excavations

• Alexander Cunningham noticed a Harappan Seal in 1853 but didn't grasp its importance then.
• In 1920, Daya Ram Sahni initiated excavations at Harappa in the Sahliwal district of West Punjab (Pakistan).
• In 1921, R.D. Banerjee began work at Mohenjodaro in Sindh's Larkana district.
• These digs unearthed evidence of an advanced civilization in the area.
• Large-scale excavations occurred at Mohenjodaro in 1931, overseen by Marshall.
• Mackey later excavated the same site in 1938.
• Vats and Wheeler conducted excavations at Harappa in 1940 and 1946.

Geographical Extent

• The Harappan civilization covered approximately 1.3 million sq. km, located in the northwestern part of the Indian Subcontinent.
• It was the largest civilization of its time; the earliest Indus Valley excavations took place at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, in West Punjab and Sindh, now Pakistan.
• It was centrally located in Sindh and Punjab, mainly within the Indus Valley.
• Extent included parts of Punjab, Haryana, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.
• It stretched from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from Balochistan's Makran coast in the west to Meerut in the northeast.
• Key excavated sites: Kot Diji (Sindh), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Ropar (Punjab), Banawali (Haryana), Lothal, Surkotada, and Dholavira (Gujarat).

Origin and Evolution

• Archaeological findings suggest the Harappan culture developed gradually, with four main stages:

Pre-Harappan Stage

• Lasted from 5500 BCE to 3300 BCE
• Nomadic groups started transitioning to settled agricultural life.
• This phase was located in eastern Balochistan, with excavations at Mehrgarh, 150 miles northwest of Mohenjodaro, revealing the existence of this pre-Harappan culture.

Harappan Pottery

• Harappan pottery was primarily wheel-made, with both plain and painted varieties.
• Varied pottery types included glazed, incised, polychrome, perforated, and knobbed styles, known for unique glossy finishes.
• Painted red and black wares featured black designs on a red backdrop.
• Common pottery motifs included geometric patterns, squares, triangles, circles, and animal figures like birds, snakes, and fish.

Arts

• Harappan sculpture demonstrates high craftsmanship, with various artifacts like sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite (soapstone).
• Terracotta figurines of men, women, animals, and birds, along with seal carvings, demonstrate the sculptors' skill.
• A bronze dancing girl figure from Mohenjodaro is noted for its craftsmanship, with a relaxed posture and bangle-covered arm.
• Stone statues of men and animals exist, notably the Priest King statue.
• Carnelian beads were a significant luxury item, mainly from Chanhudaro.
• Crafts included shell working, ceramics, agate, and glazed steatite bead production for bangles, necklaces, and ornaments.
• Seals, crafted from steatite, represent the Indus people's greatest artistic creations.
• Seals featured short inscriptions accompanied one-horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhino, goat and elephant depictions.

Social Life

• The Harappan social life can be understood through available evidence.
• Clothing for both men and women consisted of two pieces: an upper and a lower garment.
• Both genders wore beads, and women wore jewelry like bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, earrings, and finger rings.
• Ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, and semi-precious stones; cosmetics were also used.
• Children played with clay carts.
• Findings at Lothal suggest the use of stringed musical instruments.
• Cubical dice at Mohenjodaro indicate chess was played.
• Fishing was a common occupation, with hunting and bull fighting as pastimes.
• Household items of stone, shells, ivory, and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.
• Copper was used for spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, and knives.
• Weapons included axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, and arrows, made of copper and bronze.

Script

• The Harappan script remains undeciphered.
• The script is mainly pictographic, not alphabetical.
• It includes between 400 and 600 signs, with 40-60 being basic and the rest variants.
• The script was typically written right to left, with the 'Bustrophedon Method' used on longer seals, alternating the writing direction in lines.
• The Harappan language is thought to be related to Dravidian by some, though other scholars have differing views

Early-Harappan Stage

• From 3300-2600 BCE
• Marked by people living in large villages in the plains
• Transition towards urban life occurred during this period.
• Sites like Amri and Kot Diji are evidence.

Mature-Harappan Stage

• From 2600-1900 BCE
• Characterized by the rise of major cities and urban hubs like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi.
• Excavations at Kalibangan, with its sophisticated town planning, further highlight this stage.

Late-Harappan Stage

• Began after 1800 BCE
• Marked by the start of the Indus civilization's decline.
• Excavations at Lothal provide insights into this period, with many elements remaining until 1000-900 BCE.

Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization

• Town Planning
• Harappan culture’s town planning was based on a grid system.
• Streets and lanes intersected at right angles, dividing cities into rectangular blocks, with houses along the roads.
• Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan featured citadels on mud-brick podiums.
• Each city had a lower town with brick houses for common residences.
• Cities were walled and had gateways for trade control and protection from invasions and floods.
• Burnt bricks were used extensively, but there were few stone buildings.
• The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro
• Underground drainage systems connected houses to street drains covered with stone or brick.
• Every house, regardless of size, included a courtyard and bathroom.
• Unlike other Bronze Age civilizations, Harappans emphasized public health and sanitation.

Authority & Governance

• Political organization of the Harappans remains unclear among scholars.
• Cultural uniformity suggests a central authority existed.
• Standardization and organization support this.
• Uniformity in seals, pottery, bricks, artifacts, weights, and measures.
• It is believed the civilization was ruled from Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
• Others suggest village administration.
• Some argue the Harappans had no rulers.
• Rulers were more focused on commerce than conquests.
• They might have been ruled by merchants.
• Cereals were likely received as taxes from peasants.

Economy

• Significant advancements were made in agriculture, industry, crafts, and trade.
• Agriculture: The Indus River's alluvial silt made the soil fertile.
• Villages near flood plains supplied food to both themselves and city artisans and merchants.
• Main crops: wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, and cotton.
• Grain was stored in granaries at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan.
• Domesticated animals: cats, dogs, asses, camels, sheep, goats, and buffalo.
• The use of the horse is not firmly established, with limited evidence from Mohenjodaro and Lothal.
• Other animals like deer, elephants, and rhinoceros were also hunted for food

Trade and Transport

• The civilization's economy relied heavily on trade.
• The Harappans traded in stone, metal, shell, and food.
• Exchanges were likely through a barter system, with extensive internal trade.
• Urban Indus people used weights and measures for trade: multiples of 16 were commonly used in weighing (16, 64, 160, etc.).
• Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Iran.
• Imports included gold, copper, tin, and semi-precious stones.
• Main exports: agricultural products such as wheat, barley, peas, and oilseeds, and finished products like cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures, and ivory products.
• Trade links existed between the Indus and Sumerian people.
• Indus Valley seals were found in Mesopotamia.
• Mesopotamian texts mention Dilmun and Makan as trade stations between Mesopotamia and Meluhha (Indus region).
• Bullock carts revealed use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport.
• Boats and ships were used for river and sea transport.
• A dredged canal and docking facility existed at Lothal
• Harappan culture was part of the Bronze Age, skilled in bronze manufacturing.
• Specialized artisans: goldsmiths, brick makers, bead makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders, and terracotta manufacturers.
• Beads from semi-precious stones.
• Metalworking: bronze and copper vessels.
• Gold and silver ornaments were found.

Religion

• Harappan religion is speculative, based on seals, figurines, and tablets.
• Lack of deciphered script prevents detailed construction.
• No identifiable temples or deities.
• Religious ceremonies were in private homes or outdoors.
• The Indus Valley Civilization was secular.
• Pashupati Seal (Proto-Shiva Seal): A yogic figure with three faces and two horns, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo, deer).
• Called chief male deity.
• The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, represented in terracotta.
• There are also phallus and Yoni worship.
• Trees (pipal) and animals (rhino, humped bull, elephant, tiger, buffalo) were worshipped.
• They believed in ghosts and evil forces.
• They used amulets for protection.

Burial Practices

• Burial sites: Harappa, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Lothal, and Rojdi.
• Burials in brick or stone pits.
• Bodies were shrouded or in wooden coffins facing north-south.
• Individuals were buried with jewelry.
• Complete burial and post-cremation were common at Mohenjodaro.
• At Lothal, burial pits lined with burnt bricks.
• Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
• R-37 cemetery: Separate burials indicated social status.
• A man was buried with a dog at Ropar.
• Lothal pot burials sometimes contained pairs of skeletons.
• No evidence of Sati.

Important Sites of Harappan Culture

• Nearly 1500 sites attest to its presence.

• Northernmost: Manda (J&K).

• Southernmost: Daimabad (Maharashtra).

• Westernmost: Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran Border).

• Easternmost: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh).

• Harappan sites provide info on culture, religion, architecture, town-planning, and economy.

• Knowledge is based on archaeological findings due to lack of literary evidence.

• Over-exploitation lead to decreased soil fertility, floods and soil salinity.

• Growing population strained available resources.

• The Harappan civilization de-urbanized gradually.

Dholavira Treasure

• NIO Scientists excavated the Harappan port town of Dholavira.
• Excavations showed a township with a castle, middle town, and lower town.
• Paleo climatologists, archaeologists, and geophysicists surveyed using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR).
• Fossils of marine organisms in soil show evidence of seawater.
• A 14-18 meter thick wall.
• Dholavira is the oldest site hit by a tsunami.
• Shifts caused it to not connect to the ocean 5,000 years ago.
• Well-protected economically strategic city.
• Harappans were pioneers in coastal disaster management.