Psychology Midterm Study Sheet 2

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• The origins of psychology can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers.
• Psychology as a formal scientific discipline began in the late 19th century. Specifically in 1879.

Gestalt Psychology

• A psychological approach that emphasizes the holistic nature of perception.
• Originated in the early 20th century, primarily in Germany.
• Perception of objects and experiences is more meaningful when considered as complete units rather than isolated components.
• Developed in the early 1900s, primarily through the work of German psychologists such as Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer.

Psychoanalysis

• A theory and therapy that focuses on the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
• Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis.
• Development: The late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Techniques: free association, dream analysis, and the exploration of transference and resistance.

Theories of Early Psychologists

• Early psychologists and philosophers had varying beliefs about the origins of human behavior and mental processes, often influenced by the prevailing cultural and scientific understandings of their times.
• They believed that human behavior and understanding originated from a combination of innate qualities, sensory experiences, and philosophical inquiry, rather than from an evolutionary standpoint.

Pioneers of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Established the first experimental laboratory dedicated to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.
• William James (1842–1910): Set up a laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, around the same time as Wundt, for work on functionalism.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Developed theories about the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior, and introduced concepts such as the id, ego, and superego.
• John B. Watson (1878–1958): Argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than the mind.
• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936): His experiments with dogs showed how a neutral stimulus could elicit a conditioned response when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980): Studied how children develop cognitive abilities and proposed stages of cognitive development.
• Franz Josef Gall (1758–1828): His work in phrenology influenced the early exploration of psychological traits.

Five Perspectives of Psychology

• Neuroscience: Focuses on biological aspects of behavior.
• Psychodynamic: Emphasizes the influence of unconscious forces and childhood experiences.
• Behavioral: Concentrates on observable behaviors and learning through interactions with the environment.
• Cognitive: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
• Humanistic: Emphasizes individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Female Pioneers

• Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939): First woman to receive a doctorate in psychology.
• Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939): Focused on child development and women's issues.
• Mary Calkins (1863-1930): Studied memory and became the first female president of the American Psychological Association
• Karen Horney (1885–1952): Focused on social and cultural factors influencing personality development.
• June Etta Downey (1875–1932): Led studies on personality traits.
• Anna Freud (1895–1982): Made contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior.
• Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983): Conducted research on racial identification and self-esteem among preschool children of color.

Research

• A systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge.
• Research helps to understand behaviors, thoughts, and emotions by systematically investigating individuals, groups, or patterns of behavior.
• A hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a theory.

Memory

• Sensory memory is the initial, brief storage of sensory information that lasts only a fraction of a second.
• Short-term memory holds information for about 15-25 seconds, with limited capacity.
• Long-term memory is relatively permanent storage that can last for years.

Sleep Stages

• Stage 1 (NREM): Lightest stage of sleep, easily awakened.
• Stage 2 (NREM): More stable sleep, heart rate slows, and body temperature drops.
• Stage 3 (NREM): Deep sleep, slow brain waves (delta waves).
• Stage 4 (NREM): Deepest sleep, body repairs tissues.
• REM: Rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming.
• A complete sleep cycle lasts about 90 minutes.

Sleep Disturbances

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep, or the feeling of incomplete rest which can result from, stress, anxiety, digestive issues, temperature fluctuations, and the use of substances like alcohol or caffeine
• Sleep Apnea: Breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.
• Night Terrors: Horrific dream imagery during stage 4 sleep.

Freud's Model of the Mind

• Id: Primal desires and urges.
• Ego: Rational mediator between id and reality.
• Superego: Embodies moral standards and societal expectations.

Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in muscle movement and memory.
• Glutamate: Main excitatory neurotransmitter, playing a significant role in memory and learning.
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, helps to regulate anxiety and muscle tone.
• Dopamine: Associated with movement, attention, and the reward system.
• Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
• Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.

Neurons

• Basic building blocks of the nervous system.
• Sensory Neurons: Carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).
• Motor Neurons: Transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.
• Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS and play a role in processing information and reflexes.

Subfields of Psychology

• Clinical Psychology: Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and mental health issues.
• Counseling Psychology: Helping individuals deal with specific issues, such as educational, social, and career adjustments.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies how people grow and change from infancy through old age.
• Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving.
• Social Psychology: Studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
• Behavioral Psychology: Emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the ways they can be learned or unlearned through conditioning.
• Health Psychology: Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical health.
• Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Applies psychological principles to workplace settings, such as employee behavior, motivation, performance, and organizational structure.
• Neuroscience/Biological Psychology: Examines the biological underpinnings of behavior.
• Forensic Psychology: Applies psychological principles to legal issues, often working in criminal justice settings.

Sensory System

• Sensation: Initial process where sensory organs detect external stimuli.
• Sensory Receptors: Specialized cells convert environmental stimuli into neural signals through transduction.
• Neural Pathways: Signals travel through specific pathways in the nervous system and pass through the thalamus.
• Perception: Process of organizing, interpreting, and consciously experiencing sensory information.
• Thresholds of Sensation:
  • Absolute threshold which is the minimium intensity of a stimulus
  • Just noticeable difference, the minimum change in stimulus intensity
• Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
• Perceptual Constancy: Tendency to perceive familiar objects as unchanging despite variations in sensory input.
• Perceptual Set: Predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on past experiences and expectations.
• Multimodal Perception: Integration of information from different sensory modalities.