Gravity and Earth's Internal Heat

• Gravity plays a very important role in all three mechanisms providing energy for hazards and disasters

Importance of Gravity

• Gravity determines where planets are in the solar system
• The phenomenon is responsible for creating the layers in the solid Earth
• Crucial for creating the layers in the gaseous Earth (atmosphere)
• It causes the attraction of other objects (meteorites) to the Earth
• Additionally, gravity causes material on slopes to move downhill

Earth's Internal Heat Learning Objectives

• The significance lies in understanding how the internal heat of the Earth originated
• This includes learning how it provides energy to drive plate tectonic processes
• Grasping basic mechanisms of plate tectonics is essential
• Knowing how these mechanisms create different interactions between plates is important
• Understanding how plate tectonic energy creates hazards like volcanoes and earthquakes, and where they occur is vital

Plate Tectonics Explained

• "Plate" describes the solid masses of rock that move
• "Tectonics" describes the movement and collision of plates, forming mountains and valleys

Importance of Plate Tectonics

• Plate tectonics recycles solid rock
• The phenomenon creates and destroys continents and oceans
• It reshapes the Earth's surface
• Plate tectonics releases huge amounts of energy, creating natural hazards

Plate Tectonics Impacts

• Plate tectonics gives rise to earthquakes
• This energy creates heat and friction, leading to the formation of volcanoes
• Plate tectonics can cause subsequent tsunamis
• Most significant volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur at or near plate boundaries
• The type of plate boundary and its depth determine the severity of the impact

Role of Gravity in Plate Tectonics Setup

• As the solar system formed, gravity caused dispersed matter to condense into compact atoms
• Gravity concentrated mass, forming the dense sun
• Gravity led to planet formation that has heavier planets closer to the sun and lighter planets farther way
• Within the earth, the heaviest elements sank to the center
• Progressive layering is based on element density

Earth's Structure

• The Earth comprises three layers that are the core, mantle, and crust

Earth Formation and Plate Tectonics

• The process of forming Earth's layers created 3 mechanisms that generate heat within the Earth's interior:
• The 3 mechanisms are collision of atoms (kinetic energy to heat)
• The 3 mechanisms are collision of atoms (kinetic energy to heat), compression of atoms (Chinooks), and radioactive element decay (Uranium, Thorium, Potassium)

Convection Currents Simplified

• Heat released inside the Earth increases atom speed and spacing
• Increased atom spacing reduces material density, causing it to rise
• Rising material cools: atoms slow, the molecules pack closer together, and the material becomes denser, making it then fall
• This rising and falling creates convection currents that influence both the Earth and it's atmosphere

Pea Soup Analogy Applied to Plate Tectonics

• J. Tuzo Wilson, a University of Toronto professor, linked Earth's internal heat to plate tectonics
• Wilson made this linkage with the movements of soup
• Heated soup rises, thus creating a convection current
• Soup cools and forms a crust
• Two currents moving in opposite directions cause the crust to split and drift

Plate Tectonics: Crucial Features

• The Earth's surface is covered by crustal plates
• Convection currents beneath the plates drive their movement in different directions
• Ocean floors are continually in motion, spreading from the center, sinking at the edges, and recycling rock
• Created hazards depend on the type of boundary movement

Plate Boundary Varieties

• Transform Fault Boundary: Plates move sideways
• Convergent Boundary: Plates move together
• Divergent Boundary: Plates move apart

Impacts of Plate Boundaries

• The type of plate boundary affects the number (frequency) and strength (magnitude) of earthquakes
• A larger surface area between plates results in more friction, more stored energy, and thereby more powerful earthquakes like the San Andreas Fault in California
• The San Andreas Fault represents a transform fault boundary

Convergent Boundaries

• Boundary type forms volcanos and earthquakes (significant natural hazards)
• The collision can create an island arc range like the Hawaiian Island volcanoes or Japan. A volcanic mountain ranges may be created like the Cascade Range in the NW USA

Divergent Boundaries

• If the boundary is divergent then volcanos can be created like in Iceland or the East African Rift system

Iceland: A Continental Rifting Hotspot

• Iceland has a divergent plate boundary running through its middle

Pacific Ring of Fire

• Volcanos are found at plate boundaries in the Pacific Ring of Fire

Earthquake-Plate Tectonic Connection

• The closest example to us of plates is in the Vancouver BC area
• Ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries, trenches are convergent plate boundaries, and transform faults are side-ways moving plates

Topic Summary (Plate Tectonics)

• Plate tectonic boundaries spawn volcanoes and earthquakes
• The energy each has depends on plate boundary type
• The depth of source energy affects the danger level from each hazard

Important Plate Tectonics terms

• Collision, compression, and radioactivity combine to make Earth interior heat
• The core, mantle, and crust are the Earth layers
• Continental drift and plate tectonics are both important factors
• Transform fault, convergent, and divergent plate boundaries have specific roles
• Ocean-ocean; ocean-continent; continent-continent are different types of plate collisions
• The Pacific Ring of Fire is a major entity

Air Circulation Focus

• Air circulation systems combine to form frontal systems that cause weather and storms
• To know weather approach direction and intensity requires focus
• With air circulation systems lightning, hail, hurricanes, and tornadoes, along with causes of flooding are better understood

Air Circulation Learning Objectives

• Forces for creating wind must be understood such as Pressure gradient force (PGF), Coriolis effect, centripetal force and frictional force
• To understand surface winds and the three cell model needs learning
• Need understanding the global heat engine, upper level winds and jet streams
• Knowing how air masses create storm systems with hazards is important

Wind-Making Forces

• Wind comes from pressure gradient force (PGF), Coriolis effect, centripetal force, and frictional force

Pressure Gradient Force Explained

• Horizontal air pressure differences create a net force, moving air from high to low pressure, perpendicular to isobars
• Pressure gradient force(PGF) drives wind
• How close the isobars are dictates the speed
• PGF alone would cause wind to move from high to low pressure, but deflection occurs

Coriolis Effect Explained

• The coriolis effect is an apparent force which explains is why it is called the Coriolis Effect
• It deflects moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere
• Earth's rotation creates the apparent motion
• On Earth, an object moves which is in a straight line appears to be deflected
• From outside Earth (e.g. in a space ship), the object appears to move in a straight line

Coriolis Effect Quantified

• The strength of the Coriolis Effect depends on latitude and object speed
• Deflection increases with wind speed and higher latitude
• Deflection ranges from none at the equator to maximum at the poles, all depend on wind speed
• Ignore coriolis for short distances
• Coriolis effects global wind and water circulation- it cannot be ignored

Geostrophic Winds Explained

• PGF drives wind while the Coriolis effect changes direction
• These forces combine to make geostrophic wind
• Evenly spaced isobars start the process which pressure gradient wind blowing north
• As air moves, the Coriolis effect deflects it to the right.
• Velocity creates stronger deflection which eventually flows perpendicular to the PGF, same with wind speed
• When Fс (Coriolis effect) blows parallel to the isobars (perpendicular to the PGF) the increase in wind speed increases to where the PGF equals the Coriolis effect (Fс)

Geostrophic Properties

• No acceleration of the wind can exist if the magnitude of PGF and Fc are equal which would means the constant speed or direction
• Approximation explains geostrophic winds
• Isobars must be straight and evenly spaced, and wind speed has to be constant for geostrophic wind
• Isobars are rarely evenly spaced or straight and can change direction over distance

Upper Level Winds Explained

• Upper level winds receive two names depending on direction
• Zonal wind flow winds from west to east and parallel to lines of latitude
• Meridional wind flow go from north to south and are perpendicular to latitude(parallel to lines of longitude)

Surface Winds Explained

• Surface winds don't go like the higher winds due to friction
• The Fc decreases near the Earth's surface from friction, so PGF balance wanes
• Thus, surface winds cannot be like geostrophic winds
• Friction is higher near the Earth surface so the wind moves slower at similar pressure
• Surface winds go from H to to L pressure rather than the same to them

PGF Force Types

• The PGF force are:
• friction
• FC (causes deflection) -the wind moves clockwise out of high pressure and counterclockwise out of low pressure

Surface winds causes and reasons

• The cause behind surface circulations is uneven Earth heating by the sun
• Sun's rays reach uniformly leading to extra heat at equator against the poles

Model creation information

• Model creation needs uniform Earth -Cover of water(differences in heat would not be a factor) -The sun always points directly over the surface with a rotating FC so there aren't seasonal shifts -Model results in polar highs

Three Cell Model information

-Tropics= Excess heat -Poles= Heat deficit -Both use cells to redistribute heat and generate in an area of low pressure near the equator with polar highs

Sub Cell Model information

-Weak pressure gradients produce weak winds and weak oceans which causes horse laitudes -Horses are thrown off board due to weak winds -Surface currents move back to the equator -Coriolis effect deflects air(blowing toward the NE) in both hemispheres and the trade winds use winds to reach the new world -Low pressure causes storms to develop in subpolar -Occurs when wind moves towards polar

General polar information

• 30 degree of latitude deflects air to the east and generates better air flow in polar locations
• Occurs when wind moves towards polar (N and S) or west and east
• The N is the wind and that produces the weather in Canada

Jet streams summary

• Upper jets= winds given two names
• -Zonal =flows west to east(North and South)
• -Meridional= winds north to south perpendicular to latitude (longitude) -Weaker gradients result in weak winds from 30 of 3 cell model -The coriolis effect (N,S,E,W) and the ITCZ cause the effect of the high pressures, and trade winds in both hemispheres -Clear skies occur when it generates chinooks

Heat engine use information

• Jet-stream is crucial in moving heat from equator to polar
• Without heat engine (earth would be hotter/cooler for life)
• One of the major circulation models of earth are called the Jet Streams
  • Discovered during WW2 to discover speed and altitudes
  • Move thousands of KM long wwith hundreds wide and a few thick to
• Wind speed over 200(over10-15km usually but change altitude

Types of jet stream levels

• Two main jets that work as a cross of equator
• Gaps lead to tropopause where there is mixing
• -Occurs in the troposphere +stratosphere
• A polar front= (jet), a region of subtropical convergence

Jet types that act up as streams

• Polar is at 10km going E-W
• Tropics =13km at high altitudes that causes temperature difference that generate at two force streams

Forces of jet stream force

-Moments as a the amount a spinning skater increases -Air force causes them to speed north

Winds speed and direction

• Winds speed depends on topograpy
  • High winds are where isobars run close -- Topography effects hills and contour to provide hill and slope

Centripetal effects

• Centripetal occurs in curved direction constantly
• A gradient wind happens because something changes which makes it accelerate or decelerate

Force combination effects

-Pressure gradient , Coriolis force and centripetal force generates many layers -Happens in lower levels when interferrence is needed -Will cover wind then levels Upper-level winds -Given upper level winds depending

Wind types

Zonal=winds west to east Meridional- wind north to south

Surface conditions for Wind

-Surface= across isobar (high pressure or low pressure) areas rather than parallel/linear PGF is is also balanced by (F +Fc) when you remove L from low the low pressure makes counter clock wise IN ( H/L) generates H as high clock

System buildup

• In the (N) hemisphere a large air mass clockwise is around low air pressure moves inward and upwards
• In the (H) a great air mass clockwise is from the high pressure force is moving downward

Cyclone properties

_ Upper support for development -High or low pressure comes together . -Cold air usually comes from above

Cold air information

Cold air= from above on the diagram = line, back side is to cold and surface and aloft. upper level (L) forms before the surface and moves as (w to e)

Force surface interaction

Force travels (L) to the NW at 45 degrees - Above divergence

Air support effects

• As surface (l) rises it generates upper level convergence -This effect moves up to the surface where "convergence funnels and steers to lower areas and (L orH)" -surface(1) generate (SE) by supporting and keeping the H by moving and generating cyclone or anticyclone --Deep pressure causes (tropo levels) move upwards and create stable pressure so intensity happens at lower pressures --There is an upper level convergence (vice versa in low altitudes ) which means they also generate (T) as high-altitude effect

Different Upper Level Properties

There must considerable differences between (upper level) air movement against the surface -Movements =trough low, high create movements known waves --Low level movements causes high pressures with cellular models

High and low wave patterns

• Different types come: low pressure which means larger but slower faster due to smaller short waves

• diagram provides to low level winds which affect a series of longs winds at 500mb -Known also Rossby --These are generate a 3 cell circulation

Longwave patterns

Two ways to make patterns -Small and higher N,S known Stong Zonal -Larger high N,S with strong meridional flow

• All movement is is moving east or low (8 points =4 km longitude)

Short wave pattern

• small and disturbances which have short wavelengths at high speeds

Baron Clinic information

• Wave pattern = High altitudes + cylohe formation that creates long vs shotswave patthern -Depend whether waves are 2 isothterm as (lines)= high and low as a cross function in the zone of high air

Model conditions

-Strong moving air and advection to have heat transfer for 2 regions 1 and 2 - cold air from warm areas -Those reasons generate the best cyclones (unstable)

The key

Convey belts and what they mean: _ Different temperatures combine to make 3 belts which generates a warm belt -At the surface . --originates in front, and comes before the warmer

• Conyveerlts bring large and lots of volumes through atmospheric rivers which makes flooding happen with rain

Upper layer conditions

. Hot conditions = high high on surface with surface support which happens for both cyclones/Anticyclones"

Heat streams information

.In hemisphere in north jets = support -All move wave as with max in the trough for high air pressure -Curving jet streams = high force creates both convergence/divergence points

Final conditions + summary

. To intensified something:

• must both top and all in the bottom and in the (w) for where the surface is for storm levels

• All jet stream conditions generate a level that helps or adds energy so it is always feed as system

  • High to low , as winds moves to lower altitudes it creates storms and can be dangerous

Important upper levels words to consider and not forget

Cyclogeness Conveerge -Cyclone ancticyclone is generate divergence High +Low must = support or create something with the waves (short or big)

Mass is

-The mass of earth's to help us decide hazards by using what each source creates 1
      -Must has unique region (flat/ light/pressure to have  uniform composition)
      -All source effects are (subtropics is to and polar is (N) to have a stable region

Mass word to check :

-Temperture: descriptions +Latitude descriptions -Can be changed at any moment"

Mass effect and support

    -All region to to the affect what a system is
   -This helps understand all weathers in large region so there is no system or barrier holding it down

The best method to have low levels = what 3 terms help provide

        Instillity/puffy/rain

       Stability+calm/fog /low cloud formation
       -All mass of large air has can come from different locations

Key information summary

   -All sources come down what you have to expect what types of (highs/levels) are with the mass as well as the amount of damage the wind forces provide 

-Wind and 10% effects = force as the primary, secondary and all heat or high pressure in a force . -. A great heat transfer/ wind + salinity +sun can be generated from (atmosphere,condensation ) The last is where to can up-to help for is better under

In closing we understand

-- Water that is under what it is like is the ocean: -Water volume is 200-300 m it is great helps with feed fish in the ocean by creating that process to be 50 percent of its food

• We can make ocean patterns from rubber study patterns because its important . as with the 1-2 amount

We should never forget:

-Shots vs debs -How stability can be determined

• All primary (circulation) and secondary (temperature) reasons has to do what ocean has to supply

• With all that I hope we have all done so well as too look out on for