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What is the primary location of the gonadal ridges?

On the dorsal abdominal wall Lateral to the mesonephros

On the dorsal abdominal wall Dorsal to the mesonephros

On the dorsal abdominal wall Medial to the mesonephros (correct)

On the dorsal abdominal wall Ventral to the mesonephros

What is the function of anti-Mullerian hormone in male development?

Inhibits the development of the Wolffian ducts

Regulates the descent of the testes

Stimulates the development of the Mullerian ducts

Causes the degeneration of the Mullerian ducts (correct)

What is the common structure that both male (Mullerian) and female (Wolffian) ducts empty into initially?

Inguinal canal

Cloaca (correct)

Urogenital sinus

Anal canal

What is the ligament that descends on each side of the abdomen from the inferior pole of the gonad?

Gubernaculum Signup and view all the answers

At which week of development do the testes descend?

Week 7-8 Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure that forms in the gonadal ridge and joins the Wolffian duct via efferent ductules?

Seminiferous tubules Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which prostaglandins stimulate contractions during labour?

By increasing the expression of oxytocin receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which the testes descend?

Evagination of the peritoneum through process vaginalis Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of collagenolysis in the cervix during labour?

Replacement of collagen with an amorphous substance Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of gap junctions in myometrial ripening?

To increase cell-to-cell adhesion for stronger contractions Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure that separates into the urogenital sinus and anal canal in males and the urethra, vagina, and anus in females?

Cloaca Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of Ferguson's reflex during labour?

To stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the mucus plug in the cervix?

To prevent infection and sperm from entering the uterus Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following peptides is responsible for stimulating the release of FSH from the pituitary gland?

Gonadotrophin releasing hormone Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of rupture of the membranes during labour?

The breaking of the waters Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the beta subunit of LH and hCG?

The beta subunit of hCG has an additional 24 amino acids Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of prostaglandins in cervical ripening?

To break down collagen in the cervix Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following glycoproteins is responsible for maintaining the corpus luteum in pregnancy?

hCG Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of oxytocin on uterine contractions?

It stimulates uterine contractions, but only in the presence of prostaglandins Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of FSH in males?

To enhance the production of androgen-binding protein in Sertoli cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the alpha subunit in gonadotrophins?

To provide a common structure for FSH, LH, and hCG Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of inhibin in males?

To inhibit the release of FSH from the pituitary gland Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following glycoproteins is responsible for stimulating the growth of immature Graafian follicles to maturity?

FSH Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of relaxin in females?

produced by decidual cells: soften cervix and pelvic ligaments in preparation of birth. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of Relaxin on the body?

Relaxation of ligaments and softening of collagenous tissues Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the inhibition of milk synthesis during pregnancy?

High levels of oestrogen and progesterone Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the removal of milk from the gland?

Galactokinesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of oestrogen and progesterone on the breast during pregnancy?

Growth of lactiferous ducts and tubules Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate time frame for the GI changes to revert?

6 weeks Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the initiation of milk secretion in alveoli?

Lactogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of melanocyte-stimulated hormone?

Hyperpigmentation of the face, neck, and midline of abdomen Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of the decrease in estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin after delivery?

Return to normal hormonal state Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of prolactin in lactation?

Producing milk production Signup and view all the answers

During pregnancy, which hormonal system experiences hypertrophy?

Lobular ductal-alveolar system Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary trigger for lactogenesis?

The decrease in steroid production and suckling after delivery Signup and view all the answers

Which is responsible for the release of oxytocin during lactation?

Suckling Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary requirement for normal human growth?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of lactation is the breast capable of producing large amounts of milk?

Post-delivery Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of estradiol during pregnancy?

Controlling the proliferation of ducts Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of hPL during pregnancy?

Supporting the growth of the fetus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of aromatase in the granulosa cells?

To convert testosterone into oestrogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of luteal progesterone in the female reproductive system?

It prepares the endometrium for implantation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of testosterone in the male reproductive system?

It maintains male somatic tissue differentiation and induces male secondary sexual characteristics Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is responsible for inducing female secondary sexual characteristics?

Oestrogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)?

It maintains the corpus luteum in pregnancy Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of LH in the female reproductive system?

It induces ovulation and stimulates the formation of LH receptors on granulosa cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of progestagens?

They prepare the endometrium for implantation and maintain the pregnancy Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is responsible for influencing sexual and aggressive behaviour in both males and females?

Testosterone Signup and view all the answers

What bones make up the posterior wall of the pelvis?

Sacrum and coccyx Signup and view all the answers

What structure connects the pubis to the anococcygeal body?

Pubococcygeus Signup and view all the answers

What nerve re-enters behind and underneath the pelvic floor?

Pudendal nerve Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the levator ani muscles?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of injury to the pelvic floor?

Levator ani muscles fail to recoil Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the puborectalis muscle?

To maintain the anal angle Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the iliococcygeus muscle?

To connect the ilium to the coccyx Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of the pelvic floor/diaphragm?

Levator ani muscles, coccygeus muscles, and their covering fascia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia?

Allowing gastrointestinal contents to push into the thorax Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of Cryptorchidism?

Absence of one or two testes from the scrotum Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of Holoprosencephaly?

Genetic or environmental factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of Gastroschisis?

Body wall has not closed, allowing abdominal contents to leak outside Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary risk associated with Cryptorchidism?

20x increased risk of developing testicular malignancy Signup and view all the answers

At what stage of development does the fertilization occur?

Within 24 hours of ovulation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a Hydatidiform Mole?

No fetus, only placenta forms Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of a Hydatidiform Mole?

Formation of a large placenta with grape-like clusters of swollen chorionic villi Signup and view all the answers

During gut rotation, which part of the intestine undergoes mesentery shortening or fusion with the posterior abdominal wall?

Duodenum Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a pluripotent stem cell?

Ability to differentiate into cells derived from any of the three germ layers Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a body wall defect that occurs to the right of the umbilical cord?

Gastroschisis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of stem cells in a research laboratory?

To study disease mechanisms and develop treatments Signup and view all the answers

What is the key feature of undifferentiated stem cells?

Ability to divide indefinitely Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of regenerative medicine?

To replace or repair damaged tissues Signup and view all the answers

During gut rotation, what happens to the mesentery of the small intestine?

It shortens Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of stem cells in tissue engineering?

To differentiate into specific cell types Signup and view all the answers

What is the method that combines using a condom and a pill?

Double Dutch Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of attending a review if a woman using a diaphragm or cap gains or loses over 7lbs in weight?

To adjust the diaphragm size Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of missing a pill and not taking it within 12 hours?

Ovulation may occur Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of oestrogen in combined hormonal pills?

To inhibit FSH secretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the duration of taking combined hormonal pills followed by a break?

21 days on, 7 days off Signup and view all the answers

What is the risk of taking combined hormonal pills late?

Reduced effectiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of progesterone in combined hormonal pills?

Thickens cervical mucus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of combined hormonal pills?

Inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucus Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of live births have some congenital defect?

20% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of congenital defects in about 70% of all birth defects?

Unknown or multifactorial Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of pluripotent stem cells?

They can differentiate into cells derived from any of the three germ layers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common type of congenital defect?

Heart and circulation defects Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of gut malrotation?

Duodenum, ascending colon, and descending colon lose their mesentery. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments?

To prevent the lower end of the sacrum from being rotated upward at the sacroiliac joint Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of stem cells?

They are undifferentiated and can divide indefinitely. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of maternal ingestion of Accutane during pregnancy?

Increased risk of congenital anomalies Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a body wall defect that occurs to the right of the umbilical cord?

Gastroschisis Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the male and female pelvic inlet?

There is no significant difference between the male and female pelvic inlet Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate percentage of congenital defects that are caused by genetic or chromosomal factors?

13-15% Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of stem cells in regenerative medicine?

To study disease and develop potential clinical applications. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy hormones on the ligaments?

A 10% increase in transverse diameter Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the gubernaculum in the development of the ovaries?

It guides the descent of the ovaries Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the cloaca splitting during embryonic development?

Formation of the urethra, vagina, and rectum Signup and view all the answers

During gut rotation, what happens to the mesentery of the small intestine?

It shortens and fuses with the posterior abdominal wall. Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of the anterior wall of the pelvis?

Pubic rami and symphysis Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the failure of the umbilicus to close completely, combined with failure of the midgut to herniate back into the abdominal cavity fully?

Omphalocele Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the broad ligament in relation to the ovaries?

It stops the progress of the ovaries Signup and view all the answers

What is the shape of the female pelvic cavity?

More cylindrical in shape Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the pelvic floor/diaphragm?

To separate the pelvic cavity from the perineum Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of stem cells?

They are self-renewing and can divide indefinitely. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the male and female pelvic outlet?

The female pelvic outlet is larger and more oval in shape Signup and view all the answers

What is the axis of the pelvis?

A curved course taken by the baby's head during delivery Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of neural tube defects could be prevented if women consume 400 micrograms of folic acid daily?

75% Signup and view all the answers

During which weeks of gestation is there an increased risk of birth defects?

Week 3 to week 5 Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of live births are affected by major congenital defects?

6% Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the anomaly that requires medical or surgical treatment and causes a significant disability?

Major congenital defects Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate percentage of anomalies that do not require intervention and cause minimum handicap?

15% Signup and view all the answers

What is the risk of having a major malformation if a minor anomaly is present?

3% chance Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a major defect that is classified as rarely life-threatening?

Hypospadias Signup and view all the answers

During which weeks of gestation does the fetal period occur?

Week 7 to week 38 Signup and view all the answers

What is the minimum time required between two vaccinations of the same type?

3 weeks Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of a population needs to be vaccinated to achieve herd immunity?

85% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why some parents choose not to vaccinate their children?

Fear of side effects Signup and view all the answers

What type of vaccine was responsible for causing whooping cough?

Wrongly prepared vaccine Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of vaccine design?

To create a vaccine that is safe and effective Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between active and passive immunization?

Active immunization involves vaccination, while passive immunization involves receiving antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of an adjuvant in vaccine design?

To increase the effectiveness of the vaccine Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary feature of a neutralizing antibody?

It is able to neutralize the pathogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate percentage of neural tube defects that could be prevented if women consume 400 micrograms of folic acid daily?

75% Signup and view all the answers

During which period of gestation is there an increased risk of birth defects?

Week 3 to 7 Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of live births affected by major congenital defects?

6% Signup and view all the answers

What is the risk of having a major malformation if a minor anomaly is present?

3% chance Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a major defect that is rarely life-threatening?

Hypospadias Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which the cloaca splits into urethra, vagina, and rectum?

Septation of the cloaca Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate percentage of congenital defects that are caused by genetic or chromosomal factors?

13-15% Signup and view all the answers

What is the leading cause of infant mortality?

Heart and circulation defects Signup and view all the answers

Around what percentage of live births have some congenital defect?

20% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why the incidence of some birth defects has reduced while others have increased?

Changes in lifestyle and environmental factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which the abdominal contents leak outside in a gastroschisis?

Defect in the abdominal wall Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary risk associated with cryptorchidism?

Increased risk of testicular malignancy Signup and view all the answers

During which week of development do the embryoblasts differentiate into two layers?

Week two Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the trophoblasts during week two of development?

Formation of two layers: synctioblast and cytotrophoblast Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of a hydatidiform mole?

A pregnancy with no fetus, only placenta forms Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism that contributes to the increase in plasma volume during early pregnancy?

Activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and sodium retention Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of the increase in plasma volume on haemoglobin concentrations during pregnancy?

Haemoglobin concentrations decrease due to dilutional anaemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following changes occurs in the cardiovascular system during pregnancy?

Plasma volume increases by 45% Signup and view all the answers

What is the pattern of increase in blood volume during pregnancy?

Increases rapidly in the first and second trimesters and slows down in the third trimester Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the increase in plasma volume during pregnancy?

It helps to accommodate the increased blood flow and oxygen delivery to the fetus Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of infiltrating leucocytes in the immune system?

To secrete IL-2 which regulates the immune system Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of placental size less than 2.5 cm?

Intrauterine growth retardation of the fetus Signup and view all the answers

What is the indication of a thick ring of membranes on the fetal surface of the placenta?

Prematurity and prenatal bleeding Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of retained placental tissue?

Haemorrhage and infection after birth Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a darker than normal maternal surface of the placenta?

Haemorrhage Signup and view all the answers

During the fetal development, what is the primary function of the placenta?

To transfer oxygen and remove waste and carbon dioxide Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the lungs of a fetus during the first week of age?

They become efficient for respiration Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the secretion of surfactant by the fetus?

It helps to remove fluid from the lungs and initiate gas exchange Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the chest compression during the birth process?

It helps to establish a very negative pleural pressure Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the accumulation of fat and glycogen by the fetus before birth?

It provides the necessary energy for the neonate in the first few months Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the increased tendency to clot during pregnancy?

To maintain placental function Signup and view all the answers

What is the leading cause of direct deaths in pregnancy?

Thrombosis and Thromboembolism Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy on plasma haemoglobin concentration?

It decreases Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of increased plasma volume during pregnancy?

Increased cardiac output Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy on blood pressure?

It decreases initially and then restores Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the increased oxygen consumption during pregnancy?

To support fetal growth Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of increased alveolar ventilation during pregnancy?

Increased minute ventilation Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy on platelet count?

It decreases Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy on fibrinogen and clotting factors?

Their concentrations increase Signup and view all the answers

What is the prevalence of Thrombosis and Thromboembolism in women under 35 years of age?

1/1000 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which glucose is transferred across the placenta?

Facilitated diffusion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of granulosa cells in the luteal phase?

Forming the corpus luteum and secreting progesterone and oestrogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of human placental lactogen (hPL) in the maternal body?

It inhibits gluconeogenesis in the maternal liver Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the burst of LH and FSH in the ovulatory phase?

Due to the positive feedback of oestrogen on the HPA axis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of Sertoli cells in spermatogenesis?

Forming the blood-testes barrier and preventing infertility Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why the fetus is not rejected by the maternal immune system?

The trophoblast cells express HLA G, which is not recognized by the maternal immune system Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the developing placenta during fertilization?

Secretion of hCG to stop the corpus luteum from degenerating Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of relaxin in preparation for birth?

It softens the cervix and pelvic ligaments Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that determines the rate of diffusion across the placenta?

The surface area of the placenta Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of type B spermatogonia in spermatogenesis?

Entering meiosis and differentiating into spermatocytes Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of insulin-like growth factors produced by the placenta?

They stimulate the differentiation of cytotrophoblasts Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of oestrogen during the ovulatory phase?

Stimulating the HPA axis to produce a burst of LH and FSH Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the placenta in regulating maternal blood glucose levels?

It ensures an adequate supply of glucose to the fetus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of progesterone during the luteal phase?

Preparing the uterine endometrium for implantation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which large proteins and cells are transferred across the placenta?

Pinocytosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of hCG during fertilization?

Stopping the corpus luteum from degenerating Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of prostaglandins in inducing cervical ripening?

By stimulating collagenolysis and replacing collagen with an amorphous substance Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of prostaglandins in myometrial ripening?

Developing cell-to-cell adhesion and increasing oxytocin receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the stimulus for the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?

The baby pushing down on the cervix after cervical ripening Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of prostaglandins on oxytocin receptors?

Increase in oxytocin receptors, enhancing contraction strength Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the mucus plug?

To prevent infection and sperm from entering the cervix Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of cervical tissue after ripening?

Decreased collagen concentration and increased amorphous substance Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Ferguson's reflex in labour?

To stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of prostaglandins on myometrial contractions?

Stimulation of myometrial contractions Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is responsible for relaxation of ligaments during pregnancy?

Relaxin Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of melanocyte-stimulated hormone during pregnancy?

Hyperpigmentation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of estrogen during lactation?

Growth of lactiferous ducts and tubules Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the inhibition of milk synthesis during pregnancy?

High levels of estrogen and progesterone Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of breast anatomy?

Alveoli and lactiferous sinuses Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of prolactin during lactation?

Initiation of milk secretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of progesterone on lactation?

Inhibition of milk synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of mamogenesis during pregnancy?

Breast enlargement and development Signup and view all the answers

What is the average age of menopause in the UK?

51-52 years Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the UK population is post-menopausal?

18% of the UK population Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the time leading up to and around menopause?

Climacteric Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of short-term symptoms and long-term sequelae in menopause?

Estrogen deficiency Signup and view all the answers

What is the long-term consequence of menopause on the cardiovascular system?

Increased risk of ischaemic heart disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the long-term skeletal consequence of menopause?

Osteoporosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the skin during menopause?

Inelastic, thin, and flaky Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the loss of bone density in the vertebrae during menopause?

Dowager's Hump Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the cortical granule exocytosis in a sperm during fertilization?

Calcium release in a wave Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which the fertilized ovum travels down the oviduct and becomes a zygote?

Fertilisation Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the stage at which the blastocyst differentiates into two cell populations, namely trophoblast precursors and pluriblast cells?

Morula Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which the blastocyst frees itself from the zona pellucida?

Hatching Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the establishment of physical and nutritional contact between the conceptus and the mother?

Implantation Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the signals sent by the conceptus to the mother to prevent luteal regression?

Maternal recognition Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the outer layer of the blastocyst that will give rise to the placenta?

Trophectoderm Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which the blastocyst positions itself within the uterine cavity?

Apposition Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of breastfeeding in terms of cancer risk reduction for the mother?

Lowers the risk of getting breast and ovarian cancer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential problem with breastfeeding if the mother cannot measure the amount of milk the baby is getting?

Unable to measure the amount of milk baby is getting. Signup and view all the answers

During which week of development do the major organ systems begin to take shape?

Week 4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the CHIN method in breastfeeding positioning?

Ensures the baby is in the correct position to latch on and feed effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of incorrect positioning during breastfeeding?

Sore nipples, engorgement, and mastitis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the pharyngeal arches in embryonic development?

They form the basis of the development of the head and neck. Signup and view all the answers

During which week of development do the limbs start to form?

Week 5 Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the neural tube closure in embryonic development?

It forms the basis of the central nervous system. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of oestrogen in the ovulatory phase of the female reproductive cycle.

Oestrogen stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in a burst of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of spermatogenesis, highlighting the role of Sertoli cells and meiosis.

Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules, where Type A spermatogonia undergo mitosis. Type B spermatogonia enter meiosis, and primary spermatocytes complete meiosis I. Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II, and spermatids undergo spermiogenesis to become spermatozoa. Sertoli cells form the blood-testes barrier and support developing germ cells. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the changes that occur in the ovary during the luteal phase, highlighting the role of granulosa cells.

During the luteal phase, granulosa cells of the mature follicle divide and form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and oestrogen. These hormones prepare the uterine endometrium for implantation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of fertilisation and implantation, highlighting the role of the developing placenta.

Fertilisation occurs when a spermatozoon penetrates the oocyte, resulting in a zygote. The developing placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which maintains the corpus luteum, and progesterone levels, supporting implantation and early pregnancy. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of LH in the female reproductive cycle, highlighting its significance in the ovulatory phase.

LH surge triggers ovulation, completing meiosis I and stimulating the release of the oocyte from the follicle. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of meiosis I and meiosis II in the oocyte, highlighting the significance of each phase.

Meiosis I: The oocyte arrests in prophase I until the LH surge triggers completion of meiosis I. Meiosis II: The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II, and if fertilised, forms a zygote. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of the corpus luteum in the female reproductive cycle, highlighting its significance in the luteal phase.

The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and oestrogen, preparing the uterine endometrium for implantation. hCG secreted by the developing placenta maintains the corpus luteum, ensuring continued progesterone production. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments in maintaining the pelvic structure?

They prevent the lower end of the sacrum from being rotated upward at the sacroiliac joint and convert the sciatic notch into the greater and lesser sciatic foramina. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of spermiogenesis, highlighting the transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Spermiogenesis: Spermatids undergo significant morphological changes, including the formation of the acrosome, flagellum, and condensation of DNA, to become mature spermatozoa. Signup and view all the answers

How do the dimensions of the pelvic inlet and outlet differ between males and females?

The pelvic inlet is similar in both males and females, but the pelvic outlet is larger and more rounded in females, whereas it is smaller and oval-shaped in males. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of pregnancy hormones on the ligaments of the pelvis, and what is the resulting impact on the transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet?

Pregnancy hormones cause stretching of the ligaments, resulting in a 10% increase in the transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet. Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of the anterior wall of the pelvis, and what is its significance in the overall structure of the pelvis?

The anterior wall of the pelvis is composed of the pubic rami and symphysis, and it plays a crucial role in forming the pelvic cavity and providing support for the pelvic viscera. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the axis of the pelvis in relation to childbirth, and how does it relate to the course taken by the baby's head during delivery?

The axis of the pelvis is the curved course taken by the baby's head during delivery, and it is significant because it determines the trajectory of the baby's head as it passes through the birth canal. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the greater and lesser pelvis, and what is the significance of each in the overall structure of the pelvis?

The greater pelvis is the part of the abdominal cavity that lies above the pelvic inlet, while the lesser pelvis is the region that contains the pelvic viscera; the greater pelvis provides a broad, shallow space for the abdominal organs, while the lesser pelvis provides a narrow, deep space for the pelvic viscera. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the sacroiliac ligaments in maintaining the stability of the pelvis, and how do they relate to the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments?

The sacroiliac ligaments are situated in a deep depression between the sacrum and ilium and play a crucial role in maintaining the stability of the pelvis; they work in conjunction with the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments to provide support and stability to the pelvis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of injuries to the pelvic floor leading to prolapse of the pelvic viscera, and what is the significance of this in relation to overall pelvic health?

Injuries to the pelvic floor can lead to prolapse of the pelvic viscera, which can result in a range of complications, including incontinence, pelvic pain, and infertility; this is significant because it highlights the importance of maintaining the integrity of the pelvic floor and its supporting structures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of hot flushes and night sweats in menopausal women?

Oestrogen deficiency Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected increase in the UK population of post-menopausal women by 2020?

Double the current 18% of the UK population Signup and view all the answers

What is the average age of menopause in women?

~51 to 52 years Signup and view all the answers

What is the long-term consequence of menopause on the cardiovascular system?

Ischaemic heart disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of osteoporosis in menopausal women?

Oestrogen deficiency leading to increased bone resorption Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the transitional phase leading up to menopause?

Climacteric Signup and view all the answers

What is the prevalence of premature menopause in women under 40 years?

~1% Signup and view all the answers

What is the short-term psychological symptom of menopause?

Depression, mood swings, insomnia, memory loss, and panic Signup and view all the answers

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary location of the gonadal ridges?

What is the function of anti-Mullerian hormone in male development?

What is the common structure that both male (Mullerian) and female (Wolffian) ducts empty into initially?

What is the ligament that descends on each side of the abdomen from the inferior pole of the gonad?

At which week of development do the testes descend?

What is the structure that forms in the gonadal ridge and joins the Wolffian duct via efferent ductules?

What is the primary mechanism by which prostaglandins stimulate contractions during labour?

What is the process by which the testes descend?

What is the result of collagenolysis in the cervix during labour?

What is the role of gap junctions in myometrial ripening?

What is the structure that separates into the urogenital sinus and anal canal in males and the urethra, vagina, and anus in females?

What is the primary function of Ferguson's reflex during labour?

What is the purpose of the mucus plug in the cervix?

Which of the following peptides is responsible for stimulating the release of FSH from the pituitary gland?

What is the result of rupture of the membranes during labour?

What is the difference between the beta subunit of LH and hCG?

What is the role of prostaglandins in cervical ripening?

Which of the following glycoproteins is responsible for maintaining the corpus luteum in pregnancy?

What is the effect of oxytocin on uterine contractions?

What is the primary function of FSH in males?

What is the primary function of the alpha subunit in gonadotrophins?

What is the primary function of inhibin in males?

Which of the following glycoproteins is responsible for stimulating the growth of immature Graafian follicles to maturity?

What is the primary function of relaxin in females?

What is the primary effect of Relaxin on the body?

What is the primary reason for the inhibition of milk synthesis during pregnancy?

What is the term for the removal of milk from the gland?

What is the primary effect of oestrogen and progesterone on the breast during pregnancy?

What is the approximate time frame for the GI changes to revert?

What is the term for the initiation of milk secretion in alveoli?

What is the primary effect of melanocyte-stimulated hormone?

What is the primary effect of the decrease in estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin after delivery?

What is the primary function of prolactin in lactation?

During pregnancy, which hormonal system experiences hypertrophy?

What is the primary trigger for lactogenesis?

Which is responsible for the release of oxytocin during lactation?

What is the primary requirement for normal human growth?

During which stage of lactation is the breast capable of producing large amounts of milk?

What is the primary function of estradiol during pregnancy?

What is the primary function of hPL during pregnancy?

What is the primary function of aromatase in the granulosa cells?

What is the role of luteal progesterone in the female reproductive system?

What is the function of testosterone in the male reproductive system?

Which hormone is responsible for inducing female secondary sexual characteristics?

What is the primary function of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)?

What is the role of LH in the female reproductive system?

What is the primary function of progestagens?

Which hormone is responsible for influencing sexual and aggressive behaviour in both males and females?

What bones make up the posterior wall of the pelvis?

What structure connects the pubis to the anococcygeal body?

What nerve re-enters behind and underneath the pelvic floor?

What is the function of the levator ani muscles?

What is the result of injury to the pelvic floor?

What is the function of the puborectalis muscle?

What is the function of the iliococcygeus muscle?

What is the composition of the pelvic floor/diaphragm?

What is the primary effect of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia?

What is the primary characteristic of Cryptorchidism?

What is the primary cause of Holoprosencephaly?

What is the primary effect of Gastroschisis?

What is the primary risk associated with Cryptorchidism?

At what stage of development does the fertilization occur?

What is the primary characteristic of a Hydatidiform Mole?

What is the primary effect of a Hydatidiform Mole?

During gut rotation, which part of the intestine undergoes mesentery shortening or fusion with the posterior abdominal wall?

What is the primary characteristic of a pluripotent stem cell?

What is the term for a body wall defect that occurs to the right of the umbilical cord?

What is the primary function of stem cells in a research laboratory?

What is the key feature of undifferentiated stem cells?

What is the primary goal of regenerative medicine?

During gut rotation, what happens to the mesentery of the small intestine?

What is the primary role of stem cells in tissue engineering?

What is the method that combines using a condom and a pill?

What is the purpose of attending a review if a woman using a diaphragm or cap gains or loses over 7lbs in weight?

What is the result of missing a pill and not taking it within 12 hours?

What is the purpose of oestrogen in combined hormonal pills?

What is the duration of taking combined hormonal pills followed by a break?