Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is DNA short for?
What is DNA short for?
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (correct)
- Dual nucleotide assembly
- Deoxyribonucleic atom
- Double nitrogenous association
What are the complementary base pairs in DNA?
What are the complementary base pairs in DNA?
- A-T and G-C (correct)
- A-G and T-C
- A-U and G-C
- A-C and G-T
Who recognized that DNA is a double helix?
Who recognized that DNA is a double helix?
- Watson and Crick
- Chargraff
- Methane CHy
- Rosallind Franklin (correct)
What did Watson and Crick discover about DNA?
What did Watson and Crick discover about DNA?
What did tobacco companies use to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
What did tobacco companies use to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
In 1994, what did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine?
In 1994, what did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine?
What marketing policy has the tobacco industry been implementing since the 1970s?
What marketing policy has the tobacco industry been implementing since the 1970s?
What did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes as?
What did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes as?
What is the structure of the DNA backbone?
What is the structure of the DNA backbone?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
How does DNA polymerase add nucleotides during chain-elongation?
How does DNA polymerase add nucleotides during chain-elongation?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication?
What is the orientation of the two DNA strands during replication?
What is the orientation of the two DNA strands during replication?
Which enzyme unwinds the two DNA strands during replication?
Which enzyme unwinds the two DNA strands during replication?
What is the function of primase during DNA replication?
What is the function of primase during DNA replication?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
How is the new strand, the leading strand, built during DNA replication?
How is the new strand, the leading strand, built during DNA replication?
What is the most accurate description of the replication of the lagging strand?
What is the most accurate description of the replication of the lagging strand?
What is the term for the process where the primer binds to its complementary sequence in the template DNA?
What is the term for the process where the primer binds to its complementary sequence in the template DNA?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
Which method uses electrophoresis to determine the base sequence of DNA fragments?
Which method uses electrophoresis to determine the base sequence of DNA fragments?
What does the central dogma of genetics involve?
What does the central dogma of genetics involve?
Which enzyme synthesizes the RNA strand during transcription?
Which enzyme synthesizes the RNA strand during transcription?
What is the process of copying DNA into RNA known as?
What is the process of copying DNA into RNA known as?
What does the genetic code use to specify amino acids?
What does the genetic code use to specify amino acids?
What is the role of a gene?
What is the role of a gene?
What does eukaryotic mRNA processing involve?
What does eukaryotic mRNA processing involve?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What does Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) do?
What does Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) do?
What are the categories of proteins mentioned in the text?
What are the categories of proteins mentioned in the text?
What is involved in translation?
What is involved in translation?
What did Kornberg's earlier work demonstrate the need for in DNA replication?
What did Kornberg's earlier work demonstrate the need for in DNA replication?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the consequence of mutations?
When does translation occur in protein synthesis?
When does translation occur in protein synthesis?
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
What can result from errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagenic toxics?
What can result from errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagenic toxics?
What is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the US and Canada?
What is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the US and Canada?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What can secondhand smoking lead to in babies born to smokers?
What can secondhand smoking lead to in babies born to smokers?
What is the function of DNA repair?
What is the function of DNA repair?
What is the role of DNA mutations in affecting phenotype?
What is the role of DNA mutations in affecting phenotype?
What is the process that occurs when the ribosome moves down the mRNA in the 5’ -> 3’ direction and ejects the empty tRNA?
What is the process that occurs when the ribosome moves down the mRNA in the 5’ -> 3’ direction and ejects the empty tRNA?
What is the structure that carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon?
What is the structure that carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What is the orientation of the two DNA strands during replication?
What is the orientation of the two DNA strands during replication?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
Which method is used to determine the base sequence of DNA fragments?
Which method is used to determine the base sequence of DNA fragments?
What is the process of copying DNA into RNA known as?
What is the process of copying DNA into RNA known as?
What is the central dogma of genetics?
What is the central dogma of genetics?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
What is the term for the process where the primer binds to its complementary sequence in the template DNA?
What is the term for the process where the primer binds to its complementary sequence in the template DNA?
What does eukaryotic mRNA processing involve?
What does eukaryotic mRNA processing involve?
Why did tobacco companies use physiological manipulations to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
Why did tobacco companies use physiological manipulations to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
What did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine in 1994?
What did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine in 1994?
What did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes as?
What did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes as?
Under the new FDA rules (2010), what are tobacco companies prohibited from doing?
Under the new FDA rules (2010), what are tobacco companies prohibited from doing?
What did the tobacco industry use as a powerful tool to participate in making cigarettes look cool?
What did the tobacco industry use as a powerful tool to participate in making cigarettes look cool?
How did the tobacco industry target young children and adolescents as a marketing policy since the 1970s?
How did the tobacco industry target young children and adolescents as a marketing policy since the 1970s?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the role of DNA repair?
What is the role of DNA repair?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
When do ribosomes begin translating the mRNA sequence into amino acids?
When do ribosomes begin translating the mRNA sequence into amino acids?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What did Rosalind Franklin recognize about the DNA structure?
What did Rosalind Franklin recognize about the DNA structure?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What did Chargraff's ratios of the nitrogenous bases and the phosphate and sugar backbone show about the DNA molecule?
What did Chargraff's ratios of the nitrogenous bases and the phosphate and sugar backbone show about the DNA molecule?
What is the role of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) in most forms of life on this planet?
What is the role of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) in most forms of life on this planet?
What did millions of nucleotides form when arranged in a particular sequence?
What did millions of nucleotides form when arranged in a particular sequence?
What did the DNA molecule consist of, according to the text?
What did the DNA molecule consist of, according to the text?
What did Rosalind Franklin recognize about the DNA structure?
What did Rosalind Franklin recognize about the DNA structure?
What is the diameter of the DNA molecule according to the text?
What is the diameter of the DNA molecule according to the text?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What is responsible for the transmission of information from one generation to the next in most forms of life on this planet?
What is responsible for the transmission of information from one generation to the next in most forms of life on this planet?
What did the tobacco industry use to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
What did the tobacco industry use to convince women to smoke in the 40s?
What did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine in 1994?
What did the CEO of a tobacco company deny about nicotine in 1994?
Under the new FDA rules (2010), what are tobacco companies prohibited from doing?
Under the new FDA rules (2010), what are tobacco companies prohibited from doing?
How did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes?
How did the tobacco industry initially present e-cigarettes?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
What is the function of DNA ligase during DNA replication?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What are the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
What is the term for the process where DNA is denatured into single strands at high temperature?
How does DNA polymerase add nucleotides during chain-elongation?
How does DNA polymerase add nucleotides during chain-elongation?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What is the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis based on?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What did Watson and Crick discover about the DNA structure?
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What does the genetic code use to specify amino acids?
What does the genetic code use to specify amino acids?
What is the function of DNA repair?
What is the function of DNA repair?
Which enzyme unwinds the two DNA strands during replication?
Which enzyme unwinds the two DNA strands during replication?
Which component carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA codon?
Which component carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA codon?
When does translation occur in protein synthesis?
When does translation occur in protein synthesis?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the consequence of mutations?
What is the role of ribosomes in translation?
What is the role of ribosomes in translation?
What is the primary cause of mutations during DNA replication?
What is the primary cause of mutations during DNA replication?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
When do ribosomes begin translating mRNA into amino acids?
When do ribosomes begin translating mRNA into amino acids?
What is the primary cause of mutations?
What is the primary cause of mutations?
What does a mutation affect?
What does a mutation affect?
What is the role of translocation in translation?
What is the role of translocation in translation?
What is the function of ribosomes in translation?
What is the function of ribosomes in translation?
What is the length of human DNA in one cell?
What is the length of human DNA in one cell?
What is the key function of DNA polymerase in replication?
What is the key function of DNA polymerase in replication?
What is the main purpose of the Sanger method in DNA analysis?
What is the main purpose of the Sanger method in DNA analysis?
What is the primary function of the PCR reaction?
What is the primary function of the PCR reaction?
What are the two functional roles of DNA?
What are the two functional roles of DNA?
What is the central dogma of genetics?
What is the central dogma of genetics?
What are the key molecules involved in transcription?
What are the key molecules involved in transcription?
What are the components of a gene in eukaryotes?
What are the components of a gene in eukaryotes?
What is the primary function of the 5' cap and poly(A) tail in mRNA?
What is the primary function of the 5' cap and poly(A) tail in mRNA?
What are the major classes of proteins involved in cell processes?
What are the major classes of proteins involved in cell processes?
What are the key components involved in protein synthesis?
What are the key components involved in protein synthesis?
What is the universal code used in most organisms' nuclear genomes to specify amino acids?
What is the universal code used in most organisms' nuclear genomes to specify amino acids?
What is the process of releasing information contained in a DNA sequence known as?
What is the process of releasing information contained in a DNA sequence known as?
DNA molecule has a diameter of [2nm] and that one turn of the helix was [3.4nm] in length
DNA molecule has a diameter of [2nm] and that one turn of the helix was [3.4nm] in length
Watson and Crick Take shargraf work and franklin pictures and discovered a double helix Discovered ______
Watson and Crick Take shargraf work and franklin pictures and discovered a double helix Discovered ______
Strands have a backbone composed of [______] to sugars to which the bases are attached
Strands have a backbone composed of [______] to sugars to which the bases are attached
Complementary base pairs A-T and G-C through [______]
Complementary base pairs A-T and G-C through [______]
Responsible for transmission of Information from one generation to the next in most forms of life on this planet
Responsible for transmission of Information from one generation to the next in most forms of life on this planet
DNA polymerase requires a ______ to initiate replication
DNA polymerase requires a ______ to initiate replication
The Sanger method yields DNA fragments, whose sizes are measured by ______
The Sanger method yields DNA fragments, whose sizes are measured by ______
The PCR reaction amplifies a single copy of a DNA segment into billions of identical copies, requiring a target DNA determined by ______
The PCR reaction amplifies a single copy of a DNA segment into billions of identical copies, requiring a target DNA determined by ______
The central dogma of genetics states that DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated to form ______
The central dogma of genetics states that DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated to form ______
Transcription involves RNA polymerase synthesizing an RNA transcript using one DNA strand as the template, in the ______ direction
Transcription involves RNA polymerase synthesizing an RNA transcript using one DNA strand as the template, in the ______ direction
Post-transcriptional processing of mRNA in eukaryotes involves splicing out ______
Post-transcriptional processing of mRNA in eukaryotes involves splicing out ______
DNA replication occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction, meaning that new DNA strands are synthesized in the ______ direction as the replication fork moves along the DNA template.
DNA replication occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction, meaning that new DNA strands are synthesized in the ______ direction as the replication fork moves along the DNA template.
Adjacent bases in DNA are aligned so that their planar rings stack on top of one another, a phenomenon known as base ______.
Adjacent bases in DNA are aligned so that their planar rings stack on top of one another, a phenomenon known as base ______.
The DNA backbone is assembled from repeating deoxyribose sugar units that are linked through ______ groups.
The DNA backbone is assembled from repeating deoxyribose sugar units that are linked through ______ groups.
DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond only if the base on the incoming nucleotide is complementary to the base on the template strand, ensuring a ______ sequence in the newly synthesized DNA.
DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond only if the base on the incoming nucleotide is complementary to the base on the template strand, ensuring a ______ sequence in the newly synthesized DNA.
During DNA replication, one new DNA strand, known as the leading strand, is built continuously from its 5’ end to its 3’ end, while the other new strand, known as the ______ strand, is built in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
During DNA replication, one new DNA strand, known as the leading strand, is built continuously from its 5’ end to its 3’ end, while the other new strand, known as the ______ strand, is built in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
DNA polymerase 1 removes RNA and replaces it with DNA, and the enzyme ______ joins the Okazaki fragments together to complete the synthesis of the lagging strand.
DNA polymerase 1 removes RNA and replaces it with DNA, and the enzyme ______ joins the Okazaki fragments together to complete the synthesis of the lagging strand.
Under the new FDA rules (2010), tobacco companies cannot: sponsor ______ events and sell items with tobacco brands’ logos
Under the new FDA rules (2010), tobacco companies cannot: sponsor ______ events and sell items with tobacco brands’ logos
Some companies helped build/sponsor ______ (100 schools)
Some companies helped build/sponsor ______ (100 schools)
E-cigarettes used by teens - initially presented as way to stop people from ______, did not work
E-cigarettes used by teens - initially presented as way to stop people from ______, did not work
tobacco industry has been targeting young children and adolescents as a marketing policy since the ______
tobacco industry has been targeting young children and adolescents as a marketing policy since the ______
tobacco companies used physiological manipulations to convince women to ______
tobacco companies used physiological manipulations to convince women to ______
tobacco industry used 12.4 million dollars on advertisement and ______
tobacco industry used 12.4 million dollars on advertisement and ______
Translation involves the conversion of mRNA base sequences to amino acid sequences by ribosomes via ______
Translation involves the conversion of mRNA base sequences to amino acid sequences by ribosomes via ______
tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA ______
tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA ______
Ribosomes begin translating mRNA as soon as it is transported from the nucleus to the ______
Ribosomes begin translating mRNA as soon as it is transported from the nucleus to the ______
Human DNA in one cell is 2 meters long, and 10^{16} cells are produced in a human ______
Human DNA in one cell is 2 meters long, and 10^{16} cells are produced in a human ______
Mutations include silent, missense, nonsense, and ______ mutations, with consequences for protein activity and phenotype
Mutations include silent, missense, nonsense, and ______ mutations, with consequences for protein activity and phenotype
Smoking is a significant cause of mutations leading to lung cancer and other diseases, and tobacco smoke contains numerous ______
Smoking is a significant cause of mutations leading to lung cancer and other diseases, and tobacco smoke contains numerous ______
Who recognized that DNA is a double helix, rotating in clockwise rotation?
Who recognized that DNA is a double helix, rotating in clockwise rotation?
What is the diameter of the DNA molecule?
What is the diameter of the DNA molecule?
How many different nitrogenous bases were discovered by Watson and Crick?
How many different nitrogenous bases were discovered by Watson and Crick?
What type of bonding holds together the nucleotides in DNA?
What type of bonding holds together the nucleotides in DNA?
What are the complementary base pairs in DNA?
What are the complementary base pairs in DNA?
What is the primary function of DNA?
What is the primary function of DNA?
Explain the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text.
Explain the two functional roles of DNA mentioned in the text.
Describe the process of DNA replication, including the roles of leading and lagging strands.
Describe the process of DNA replication, including the roles of leading and lagging strands.
Explain the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication.
Explain the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication.
What are the key components involved in the process of DNA replication?
What are the key components involved in the process of DNA replication?
Describe the process of denaturing DNA and the subsequent primer binding.
Describe the process of denaturing DNA and the subsequent primer binding.
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
What contributes significantly to the stability of the DNA double helix?
Explain the tactics used by tobacco companies in the 40s to convince women to smoke, and provide a quote related to this marketing strategy.
Explain the tactics used by tobacco companies in the 40s to convince women to smoke, and provide a quote related to this marketing strategy.
What policies did the tobacco industry implement to target young children and adolescents, and when did this marketing policy begin?
What policies did the tobacco industry implement to target young children and adolescents, and when did this marketing policy begin?
What was the initial presentation of e-cigarettes by the tobacco industry, and how much money did the tobacco industry spend on advertisement and promotion?
What was the initial presentation of e-cigarettes by the tobacco industry, and how much money did the tobacco industry spend on advertisement and promotion?
Explain the implications of the CEO of a tobacco company denying the addictiveness of nicotine in 1994.
Explain the implications of the CEO of a tobacco company denying the addictiveness of nicotine in 1994.
What are the restrictions imposed on tobacco companies under the new FDA rules (2010)?
What are the restrictions imposed on tobacco companies under the new FDA rules (2010)?
How did the tobacco industry target young children and adolescents, and what actions did some companies take to further their marketing policy?
How did the tobacco industry target young children and adolescents, and what actions did some companies take to further their marketing policy?
Explain the PCR reaction, including the key components and the purpose of the reaction.
Explain the PCR reaction, including the key components and the purpose of the reaction.
Describe the process of transcription, including the key molecules involved and the steps of the process.
Describe the process of transcription, including the key molecules involved and the steps of the process.
Discuss the functional roles of DNA, including its importance for cell division and information expression.
Discuss the functional roles of DNA, including its importance for cell division and information expression.
Explain the post-transcriptional processing of mRNA in eukaryotes, including the specific modifications involved and their purposes.
Explain the post-transcriptional processing of mRNA in eukaryotes, including the specific modifications involved and their purposes.
Describe the process of translation, including the key components and its role in protein synthesis.
Describe the process of translation, including the key components and its role in protein synthesis.
Explain the genetic code and its relationship to amino acids, including the number of possible codons and the role of tRNA.
Explain the genetic code and its relationship to amino acids, including the number of possible codons and the role of tRNA.
Explain the process of translation and the role of tRNA in protein synthesis.
Explain the process of translation and the role of tRNA in protein synthesis.
What are the consequences of mutations and how do they affect an organism?
What are the consequences of mutations and how do they affect an organism?
Describe the different types of mutations and their impact on protein activity and phenotype.
Describe the different types of mutations and their impact on protein activity and phenotype.
How does DNA replication contribute to the occurrence of mutations and what are the repair mechanisms for mutations?
How does DNA replication contribute to the occurrence of mutations and what are the repair mechanisms for mutations?
Explain the significance of mutations in relation to genetic diseases and cancer.
Explain the significance of mutations in relation to genetic diseases and cancer.
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis and when do they begin translating mRNA?
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis and when do they begin translating mRNA?
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Study Notes
DNA Replication, Transcription, and Protein Synthesis
- Kornberg's earlier work demonstrated the need for a primer in DNA replication
- The Sanger method uses electrophoresis to determine the base sequence of DNA fragments
- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies a single DNA segment into billions of identical copies
- DNA has two functional roles: replication and information storage
- The central dogma of genetics involves DNA transcription to RNA and translation to form proteins
- Transcription is the process of copying DNA into RNA, involving mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA
- A gene is a region of DNA transcribed into a functional product, with regulatory, transcribed, and termination regions
- Transcription involves initiation, elongation, and termination, with RNA polymerase synthesizing the RNA strand
- Eukaryotic mRNA processing involves splicing out introns and adding a cap and tail
- The genetic code uses 64 possible codons to specify 20 amino acids
- Proteins are involved in various cellular processes and are categorized as enzymatic, regulatory, or structural
- Translation involves mRNA, ribosomes, and tRNA to convert genetic information into proteins
Translation and Elongation in Protein Synthesis
- The genetic code is redundant, with most amino acids specified by more than one codon, up to 6.
- Translation occurs when the sequences of bases in the mRNA are converted to an amino acid sequence in a protein by ribosomes via tRNA.
- tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon, which binds to an mRNA codon, and the amino acid carried by the tRNA is added to the growing protein via formation of a peptide bond.
- Translocation occurs when the ribosome moves down the mRNA in the 5’ -> 3’ direction, ejects the empty tRNA, and moves the tRNA containing the growing polypeptide into the P site while opening the A site to a new mRNA codon.
- Ribosomes begin translating the sequence into amino acids as soon as a messenger RNA molecule is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and each ribosome progresses steadily towards the three prime end.
- Mutations can come from incorporations of incorrect bases during DNA replication, and most spontaneous changes in DNA are temporary due to being immediately corrected by DNA repair.
- A mutation is any change in an organism’s DNA sequence, and DNA mutations affect phenotype only when the mutation is expressed and the resulting protein functions abnormally.
- Point mutations, which can result from errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagenic toxics, are a type of mutation.
- Consequences of mutations include selective advantage, genetic diseases (e.g., sickle cell anemia), and cancers caused by defective repair of DNA.
- Mutated genes are accumulated over time, and the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis is based on the fact that carcinogens in tobacco cause DNA mutations.
- Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the US and Canada, with nearly 150,000 people dying prematurely each year from tobacco-related cancers.
- Secondhand smoking can lead to spontaneous abortion and other defects in babies born to smokers, and nearly 30% of all cancer deaths in the US are due to smoking.
Translation and Elongation in Protein Synthesis
- The genetic code is redundant, with most amino acids specified by more than one codon, up to 6.
- Translation occurs when the sequences of bases in the mRNA are converted to an amino acid sequence in a protein by ribosomes via tRNA.
- tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon, which binds to an mRNA codon, and the amino acid carried by the tRNA is added to the growing protein via formation of a peptide bond.
- Translocation occurs when the ribosome moves down the mRNA in the 5’ -> 3’ direction, ejects the empty tRNA, and moves the tRNA containing the growing polypeptide into the P site while opening the A site to a new mRNA codon.
- Ribosomes begin translating the sequence into amino acids as soon as a messenger RNA molecule is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and each ribosome progresses steadily towards the three prime end.
- Mutations can come from incorporations of incorrect bases during DNA replication, and most spontaneous changes in DNA are temporary due to being immediately corrected by DNA repair.
- A mutation is any change in an organism’s DNA sequence, and DNA mutations affect phenotype only when the mutation is expressed and the resulting protein functions abnormally.
- Point mutations, which can result from errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagenic toxics, are a type of mutation.
- Consequences of mutations include selective advantage, genetic diseases (e.g., sickle cell anemia), and cancers caused by defective repair of DNA.
- Mutated genes are accumulated over time, and the classic mechanism of lung carcinogenesis is based on the fact that carcinogens in tobacco cause DNA mutations.
- Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the US and Canada, with nearly 150,000 people dying prematurely each year from tobacco-related cancers.
- Secondhand smoking can lead to spontaneous abortion and other defects in babies born to smokers, and nearly 30% of all cancer deaths in the US are due to smoking.
Cellular Genetics and DNA Processes Summary
- Kornberg's earlier work demonstrated the necessity of a primer for DNA polymerase to initiate replication, and billions of DNA strands exist in varying lengths.
- The Sanger method yields DNA fragments, whose sizes are measured by electrophoresis, and ordering the fragments by size reveals the DNA base sequence.
- The PCR reaction amplifies a single copy of a DNA segment into billions of identical copies, requiring a target DNA determined by primers and lasting several hours with 20-35 repeating cycles.
- The two functional roles of DNA are replication, essential for cell division, and information expression through transcription and RNA processing.
- The central dogma of genetics states that DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated to form polypeptides (proteins).
- Transcription is the process of releasing information contained in a DNA sequence, with mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA playing key roles as intermediate molecules.
- Genes are regions of DNA transcribed into functional products, consisting of regulatory regions (promoter), transcribed regions, and termination sites.
- Transcription involves RNA polymerase synthesizing an RNA transcript using one DNA strand as the template, in the 5'→3' direction, and occurs in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.
- Post-transcriptional processing of mRNA in eukaryotes involves splicing out introns, adding a cap to the 5' end, adding a poly-A tail at the 3' end, and removing introns.
- The 5' cap and poly(A) tail extend the life of an mRNA by protecting it from degradation, and proteins are the active players in most cell processes, with major classes including enzymatic, regulatory, and structural proteins.
- Protein synthesis involves translation, converting the information stored in the nucleic acid sequence into proteins, and key components include mRNA, ribosomes, and tRNA.
- The genetic code, a universal code used in most organisms' nuclear genomes, includes 64 possible codons but only 20 amino acids, with complementary anticodons in tRNA specifically linked to an amino acid.
Translation and Mutations in Genetic Code
- The genetic code is redundant, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons.
- Translation involves the conversion of mRNA base sequences to amino acid sequences by ribosomes via tRNA.
- tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA codon.
- Translocation occurs as the ribosome moves down the mRNA, ejecting the empty tRNA and adding the tRNA containing the growing polypeptide.
- Ribosomes begin translating mRNA as soon as it is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
- Human DNA in one cell is 2 meters long, and 10^16 cells are produced in a human lifetime.
- Most mutations occur during DNA replication, but some occur when DNA is not replicating and are often repaired.
- Mutations can result from the incorporation of incorrect bases during DNA replication.
- A mutation is any change in an organism's DNA sequence, affecting phenotype when expressed.
- Mutations include silent, missense, nonsense, and frameshift mutations, with consequences for protein activity and phenotype.
- Mutations can lead to genetic diseases, cancer, and other health issues.
- Smoking is a significant cause of mutations leading to lung cancer and other diseases, and tobacco smoke contains numerous carcinogens.
Translation and Mutations in Genetic Code
- The genetic code is redundant, with most amino acids specified by multiple codons.
- Translation involves the conversion of mRNA base sequences to amino acid sequences by ribosomes via tRNA.
- tRNA carries an amino acid and has a three-base anticodon that binds to an mRNA codon.
- Translocation occurs as the ribosome moves down the mRNA, ejecting the empty tRNA and adding the tRNA containing the growing polypeptide.
- Ribosomes begin translating mRNA as soon as it is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
- Human DNA in one cell is 2 meters long, and 10^16 cells are produced in a human lifetime.
- Most mutations occur during DNA replication, but some occur when DNA is not replicating and are often repaired.
- Mutations can result from the incorporation of incorrect bases during DNA replication.
- A mutation is any change in an organism's DNA sequence, affecting phenotype when expressed.
- Mutations include silent, missense, nonsense, and frameshift mutations, with consequences for protein activity and phenotype.
- Mutations can lead to genetic diseases, cancer, and other health issues.
- Smoking is a significant cause of mutations leading to lung cancer and other diseases, and tobacco smoke contains numerous carcinogens.
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