Functions of the Digestive System

Ingestion, Mastification, Propulsion, Mixing, Secretions, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination

Oral cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Tonsils, Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas

While organs like the stomach and intestines are directly involved in digestion, accessory organs like the liver and pancreas provide supportive functions like producing digestive enzymes and bile.

<p>Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mechanoreceptors and Chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hypothalamus, Posterior pituitary, Anterior pituitary, Pancreas, Adrenal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Growth refers to an increase in size dominated in the first 20 years of life, while development includes the biological development of stem cells into functional cells and systems, as well as the development of behavioral competence in motor skills, social, emotional, and intellectual aspects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The age categories include prenatal period, infancy, perinatal, neonatal, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood divided into young adult, middle adult, and older adult stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The germ layers include ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, which play essential roles in the development of various tissues and organs in the human body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Heart rate and cardiac output changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>spinal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>reduced amounts of oestrogen &amp; progesterone, anxiety, hot flushes, emotional disturbances, fatigue, post-menopausal osteoporosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anatomy of the kidney includes structures such as the hilum, cortex, medulla, renal pyramid, renal papillae, calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, renal capsule, renal fascia, and adipose tissue. Nephrons consist of the renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Voluntary phase, Pharyngeal phase, Oesophageal phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>reduction in arterial elasticity, increased stiffness of arteries and aorta, left ventricular hypertrophy, changes in cardiac tissue, decline in cardiac output, decrease in VO2 max</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The functions of the kidneys include excretion of toxins, regulation of blood pressure and volume, regulation of solute concentration, pH levels, and RBC synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cephalic phase, Gastric phase, Intestinal phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>vital capacity decrease, decrease in gas exchange, changes in lung volumes, decreased lung elasticity</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The three phases of urine production are filtration (formation of filtrate in Bowman's capsule), tubular reabsorption (returning water and solutes to blood), and tubular secretion (removing toxic byproducts from blood to filtrate).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Examples: Amylase (breaks down carbohydrates), Lipase (breaks down lipids), Protease (breaks down proteins)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>reduced kidney size, decreased glomerular function, changes in nephron and collecting ducts, increased risk of dehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>An enzyme is a protein catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by breaking down macronutrients. Factors such as blood pH and body temperature can affect its function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hormonal mechanisms like myogenic and tubuloglomerular control blood pressure. Autogenic mechanisms regulate the filtration and reabsorption processes in the kidneys.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mouth -&gt; Pharynx -&gt; Esophagus -&gt; Stomach -&gt; Small Intestine -&gt; Large Intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A buffer is a substance that helps maintain a stable pH by resisting changes in acidity or alkalinity. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions in the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>decrease in GH, decline in thyroid hormone, immune system decline, reduction in thymosin hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides, proteins are broken down into amino acids, and lipids are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cells deteriorate with age, genetic traits impact homeostasis, decrease in organ mass and function</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both systems regulate bodily functions but differ in speed, duration, and method of communication. Endocrine system uses hormones for longer-duration communication, while the nervous system transmits signals faster via neurons and neurotransmitters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Boyle's Law (volume increases -&gt; pressure decreases), Dalton's Law (total pressure of gas mixture = sum of partial pressures), Henry's Law (gas concentration x solubility coefficient = amount of gas in liquid)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chemical messengers include autocrine (acting on the same cell), paracrine (local effects), neurotransmitters (neuronal signaling), and hormones (long-distance effects through blood circulation).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hormones can be acutely (dramatic), episodically (regular intervals), or chronically (stable over time) secreted based on the body's requirements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Plasma (55%) -- transports nutrients, hormones, and proteins; Buffy coat -- includes white blood cells for immune response; Formed elements -- red blood cells carry oxygen, platelets are involved in clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Red blood cells are produced through erythropoiesis in response to decreased blood oxygen levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hormone secretion can be controlled by neural activation (neurotransmitter signaling), hormonal activation (inducing another hormone release), and humoral control (blood-borne molecules triggering hormone release).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected from the heart per beat, cardiac output is the blood volume pumped out per minute, and ejection fraction is the percentage of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per contraction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Movement, heat production, posture and stability, protection, regulation of metabolism, and assistance with circulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Exposure of binding sites, Cross bridge formation, Power stroke, Cross bridge release, ATP to ADP conversion, Recovery stroke.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates, allowing signals from the nervous system to elicit muscle contractions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Calcium triggers muscle contractions by binding to troponin, allowing for cross-bridge formation, while ATP is essential for calcium transport and myosin head pivoting during the contraction cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bone grows in length at the epiphyseal plate, which contains the zones of resting, proliferation, hypertrophy, and calcification. The chondrocytes in these zones undergo specific processes to contribute to bone growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The three somatotypes are Endomorphy (relative fatness), Mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness), and Ectomorphy (relative linearity or slenderness). Each somatotype has distinct physical features associated with it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main changes during puberty include accelerated body growth, growth of gonads, increased production of gonadal hormones, development of secondary sex characteristics like breast development in females and pubic hair growth, and the ability to reproduce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In females, estrogen and progesterone play key roles in the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics and the menstrual cycle. In males, testosterone is responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm cell production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Fertilization involves the fusion of male and female pronuclei to form a zygote. Cell division leads to the formation of a blastocyst with an inner cell mass and trophoblast. Implantation occurs when the blastocyst burrows into the uterine wall for further development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The placenta consists of maternal and fetal sides, connected by the umbilical cord. It acts as a barrier between maternal and fetal circulations, facilitating gas exchange, nutrient transfer, and waste removal between the mother and the developing fetus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>During pregnancy, hormones like hCG, relaxin, progesterone, and estrogen are secreted from various sources such as the blastocyst, placenta, and ovaries. These hormones play crucial roles in supporting pregnancy and fetal development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>During pregnancy, cardiovascular changes include increased blood volume and cardiac output. Respiratory changes involve alterations in lung capacity. Renal changes increase urine output. Thermoregulatory changes affect metabolic rate. Endocrine changes involve adaptations in hormone levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cardiovascular changes occur to support increased blood flow to the uterus and organs. Respiratory changes assist with efficient gas exchange and oxygen delivery to meet the increased demands of the developing fetus and the pregnant woman.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Physical changes during pregnancy include weight gain, ligament laxity due to relaxin, altered center of gravity, increased weight of the uterus and breasts, and potential pelvic floor weakening leading to urinary incontinence and organ prolapse.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Menopause refers to the cessation of the menstrual cycle. Major alterations during menopause include hormonal fluctuations, changes in reproductive function, and physiological adjustments due to declining ovarian function.</p> Signup and view all the answers