Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

• This theory links personality development to a series of psychosexual stages, each focusing on a different erogenous zone
• Oral Stage (0-18 months):
  • Focus is on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing)
  • Key task is establishing trust and comfort via oral stimulation
  • Overgratification can lead to dependency and excessive talking
  • Undergratification can cause early weaning, smoking, alcoholism, nail-biting, and chewing on objects
• Anal Stage (18 months-3 years):
  • The focus is on the anus (toilet training)
  • Key task is developing autonomy and control
  • Strict training can result in obsessiveness, orderliness, stinginess, and rigidity
  • Lenient training may lead to messiness, disorganization, and recklessness
• Phallic Stage (3-6 years):
  • Focus is on the genitals (Oedipus/Electra complex)
  • Key task involves gender identification via same-sex parent identification
  • Over-identification can lead to competitiveness, flirtation, and narcissism
  • Punishment can cause inadequacy, low self-esteem, and sexual anxiety
• Latency Stage (6 years-puberty):
  • Focus is on dormant sexual feelings
  • Key task is developing social skills, friendships, and confidence
  • Fixations either overgratification or undergratification have no particular focus, as the emphasis is on social development
• Genital Stage (Puberty onward):
  • Focus is on mature genitals
  • Key task involves achieving a healthy, mature sexuality
  • Prior fixations from earlier stages can impact adult sexuality and relationships.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

• Erikson's theory posits that individuals grow in a sequence within a larger community context
• Erikson differentiates between the positive and negative sides of each crisis using the terms 'syntonic' and 'dystonic'
• Infancy (Birth to 18 months):
  • Basic crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust; The major question is "Can I trust the world?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Hope
  • Maladaptive outcome is Sensory maladjustment
  • Malignant outcome is Withdrawal (Mistrust)
• Early Childhood (18 months to 3 years):
  • Basic crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt; The major question is "Is it okay to be me?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Will
  • Maladaptive outcome is Impulsivity
  • Malignant outcome is Compulsion
• Preschool Age (3 to 5 years):
  • Basic crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt; the major question is "Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Purpose
  • Maladaptive outcome is Ruthlessness
  • Malignant outcome is Inhibition
• School Age (5 to 12 years):
  • Basic crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority; the major question is "Can I make it in the world of people and things?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Competence
  • Maladaptive outcome is Narrow Virtuosity
  • Malignant outcome is Inertia
• Adolescence (12 to 18 years):
  • Basic crisis is Identity vs. Role Confusion; The major question is "Who am I? What can I be?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Fidelity
  • Maladaptive outcome is Fanaticism
  • Malignant outcome is Repudiation
• Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years):
  • Basic crisis is Intimacy vs. Isolation; the major question is "Can I love?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Love
  • Maladaptive outcome is Promiscuity
  • Malignant outcome is Exclusivity
• Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years):
  • Basic crisis is Generativity vs. Stagnation; the major question is "Can I make my life count?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Care
  • Maladaptive outcome is Overextension
  • Malignant outcome is Rejectivity
• Late Adulthood (65 years to death):
  • Basic crisis is Ego Integrity vs. Despair; the major question is "Is it okay to have been me?"
  • Virtue/basic strength is Wisdom
  • Maladaptive outcome is Presumption
  • Malignant outcome is Disdain

Behavioral Perspectives: Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response
• Key Components:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food causing salivation)
  • Unconditioned Response (UR): An unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food)
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., a bell sound)
  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell)
• Processes:
  • Acquisition: The initial stage where the association between the neutral stimulus and the US is formed
  • Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause
  • Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
  • Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other irrelevant stimuli

Behavioral Perspectives: Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a learning process where the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased through reinforcement or punishment
• Key Components:
  • Reinforcement:
    • Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior
    • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving a treat)
    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise)
  • Punishment:
    • Any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behavior
    • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., scolding)
    • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away privileges)
• Processes:
  • Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive approximations
  • Extinction: The decrease in behavior when reinforcement is no longer provided
  • Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus
  • Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between behaviors that will be reinforced and those that will not

Social Learning Theory

• Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling, emphasizing the role of social influence and cognitive processes
• Key Components:
  • Observational Learning: Acquiring new behaviors by watching others
  • Modeling: Imitating the behavior of others
  • Attention: Noticing the behavior being demonstrated
  • Retention: Remembering the details of the behavior
  • Reproduction: The ability to replicate the behavior
  • Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior, which can be influenced by rewards or punishments
• Key Concepts:
  • Reciprocal Determinism: Interacting influences of behavior, personal factors, and the environment
  • Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations
  • Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning about the consequences of an action by observing others

Cognitive Perspective

• Focuses on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving
• Emphasizes how individuals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information

Information Processing Theory (IPT)

• IPT compares the human mind to a computer, describing how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, store, and recall information
• Key Contributors:
  • George A. Miller: Introduced the concept of "chunking" and the "magical number 7±2" in short-term memory
  • Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin: Proposed the multi-store model of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term memory)
• Key Concepts:
  • Encoding: Taking in information and assigning meaning through attention and perception
  • Storage: Holding information in memory for later use. This includes short-term, sensory and long-term memory
  • Retrieval: Accessing stored information for cognitive tasks
  • Attention: Focusing cognitive resources on specific stimuli, including selective, alternating, and sustained attention
  • Processing Speed: How fast an individual perceives, analyzes, and responds to information; improves with maturity and experience.
  • Working Memory: A temporary workspace for problem-solving and learning
  • Metacognition: Thinking about one's own thinking, including monitoring and regulating cognitive strategies
• Strategies to Enhance Information Processing:
  • Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units
  • Repetition & Rehearsal: Reviewing content to improve retention
  • Mnemonics: Using acronyms, rhymes, or images to aid recall
  • Visual Aids: Using diagrams, charts, or mind maps
  • Advance Organizers: Using introductory material to connect prior knowledge with new information

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

• CLT is based on the idea that working memory has limited capacity, so learning is more efficient when information is presented to minimize cognitive load
• Key Concepts:
  • Working Memory: The brain's short-term storage space, which is limited in capacity and duration
  • Types of Cognitive Load:
    • Intrinsic Cognitive Load: Inherent to the material being learned
    • Extraneous Cognitive Load: Caused by how information is presented (poor instructional design)
    • Germane Cognitive Load: Mental effort directly related to learning, like schema construction and problem-solving
• Applications in Education: Minimize extraneous load and manage intrinsic load while maximizing germane load
  • Simplify complex concepts with worked examples and chunking

Dual Coding Theory (Allan Paivio)

• Information is processed and stored in two channels: the visual system and the verbal system
• Key Concepts:
  • Visual System: Deals with mental images from visual stimuli
  • Verbal System: Processes written or spoken language
  • Dual Processing: Presenting information in both verbal and visual formats enhances memory
• Applications in Education: Multimedia learning uses both words and pictures to improve understanding of textbook material
• Benefits: Encourages the brain to create dual representations, which maximizes knowledge retention
• **Differences and Synergy Between CLT and Dual Coding Theory:
  • CLT stresses minimizing cognitive strain
  • Dual Coding Theory stresses the use of both visual and verbal channels
  • In practice, combining visual and verbal presentation maximizes cognitive efficiency and learning

Piaget's Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development

• Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world
• Development occurs in four sequential stages
• Key Concepts:
  • Schemas: Mental frameworks to organize and interpret information
  • Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas
  • Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones
  • Equilibration: Balancing assimilation and accommodation for resolving cognitive conflicts
• Stages of Development:
  • Children move through four stages in a set order, dependent on genetics, biological development and interaction with their environment
  • Each stage has a different type of intelligence
• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 Years):
  • Infants learn via sensory experiences and motor activities
  • Object permanence, self-recognition, deferred imitation, and representational play emerge
  • Developing object permanence depends on culture and care-giving styles
  • Impacted by gender norms
• Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 Years):
  • Children use symbols but lack logical reasoning; rely on perception instead of logic
  • Children develop symbolic thinking but show egocentrism, animism, centration, and lack conservation
  • Impacted by culture and limited representation
• Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 Years):
  • Children develop logical thinking about real situations and can solve concrete problems
  • Children can achieve conservation of number, mass, and weight, decentration and reversibility
  • Impacted by lack of cultural resources
• Formal Operational Stage (12+ Years):
  • Adolescents/adults can think abstractly, reason logically, and use hypothetical and scientific thinking
  • Impacted culture and moral understandings

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interactions, culture, and language in shaping intelligence
• Learning is embedded in the surrounding social environment
• Key Concepts:
  • Social Learning: Cognitive development is a social process, via interactions with More Knowledgeable Others (MKO)
  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a learner can do independently and with guidance
  • Cultural Influence: Cognitive growth is shaped by cultural tools like language and traditions
  • Language and Thought: Language internalizes knowledge through private speech
  • Scaffolding: Providing structured support that is reduced as competence is gained

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory focuses on how environmental factors shape human development
• Key Concepts:
  • Ecological Model: Development occurs within multiple layers of environmental influence
  • Five Environmental Systems:
    • Microsystem: Immediate environment
    • Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems
    • Exosystem: Indirect environments
    • Macrosystem: Cultural and societal influences
    • Chronosystem: The element of time/historical context
  • Bidirectional Influence: Individuals shape their environment
  • Contextual Development: Development depends on social, economic, and cultural forces
  • His theory has a deep impact on education, social policy, and developmental psychology

Research Methods

• Human development researchers use quantitative and qualitative traditions
• Quantitative research deals with objectively measurable, numerical data
• Qualitative research focuses on nonnumerical data, like subjective experiences and feelings

Developmental Research Designs

• Primary goal is to study change over time
• Common research strategies are cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
• Cross-Sectional Study:
  • Assesses age-related differences at one point in time
  • Identifies variations in cognitive abilities among different age groups
• Longitudinal Study:
  • Assesses age changes over an extended period of time
  • Tracks changes in individual participants' social skills
• Sequential Study:
  • Combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques
  • Analyzes both age-related differences and changes to analyze individual developmental trajectories