Foundations of Cognition I: Long-Term Memory
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Questions and Answers

What is the primacy effect in memory recall?

  • Better recall of words early in a list (correct)
  • Better recall of words that are newly learned
  • Better recall of words from long-term memory
  • Better recall of words in the middle of a list

Which stage of long-term memory involves the maintenance of information?

  • Retrieval
  • Retention (correct)
  • Consolidation
  • Acquisition

What role does sleep play in memory retention according to the provided information?

  • It prevents the formation of new memories
  • It directly improves short-term memory capacity
  • It helps to forget unnecessary information
  • It enhances memory strengthening through targeted cues (correct)

In Smith & Weeden's (1990) clock experiment, which group was expected to perform better on the logic task after sleep?

<p>The group who learned with a ticking clock noise (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is consolidation in the context of long-term memory?

<p>The process that stabilizes a memory trace post-acquisition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes long-term memory compared to short-term memory?

<p>Long-term memory lasts from minutes to a lifetime. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary purpose of rehearsal in memory processes?

<p>To maintain information in active short-term memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the proposed control processes by Atkinson & Shiffrin?

<p>Storage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of coding in long-term memory processes?

<p>To link new information to existing knowledge for easier recall. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of place cells in the hippocampus?

<p>To activate when an individual is in a specific location (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does long-term memory differ in its forgetting rate compared to short-term memory?

<p>Long-term memory has a slow and gradual forgetting rate. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy is often used as a mnemonic device to aid memory?

<p>Imagery techniques (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes semantic memory?

<p>General knowledge not tied to specific experiences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements regarding long-term memory is false?

<p>It relies solely on rote memorization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is semantic memory thought to be stored in the brain?

<p>In specific association areas related to the information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia did Patient H.M. experience after his surgery?

<p>Anterograde amnesia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus when studying long-term memory?

<p>The formation and retention of information over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of memory was primarily studied through Patient H.M.'s case?

<p>The role of the hippocampus in memory formation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates semantic memory?

<p>Understanding the concept of gravity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is retrograde amnesia?

<p>Loss of previously stored memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What remained intact for Patient H.M. after his surgery?

<p>Both B and C (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of mnemonics in the context of memory retention?

<p>To simplify complex information into more retrievable forms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the serial position effect refer to?

<p>The increased ability to remember the first and last items in a list (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primacy effect?

<p>Better memory for items presented at the beginning of a list (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does visualization aid in memory retention according to the content?

<p>It helps form mental reminders through associations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the recency effect is accurate?

<p>It indicates better recall for items at the end of a list (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What strategy involves associating visual images with information to enhance memory?

<p>Imaging (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following phrases accurately represents the mnemonic for star spectral classes?

<p>Oh Boy, Another F's Gonna Kill Me (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios is an example of the serial position effect?

<p>Another student recalls the last names from a list of classmates more easily (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is procedural memory primarily associated with in the brain?

<p>Striatum and cerebellum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory allows retrieval of information based on related cues?

<p>Associative memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following disorders is linked to damage in procedural memory networks?

<p>Parkinson's disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in emotional associative memory?

<p>Amygdala (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process describes a decrease in response to a repeated, neutral stimulus over time?

<p>Habituation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between associative memory and non-associative memory?

<p>Associative memory involves learning through associations, while non-associative does not. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of procedural task is likely to be affected by damage to the basal ganglia?

<p>Performing a dance routine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sensitization in the context of non-associative memory?

<p>Increased response to a strong stimulus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is anterograde amnesia characterized by?

<p>Inability to form new memories (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does temporally graded amnesia imply about memory loss?

<p>Recent memories are forgotten more than older ones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Standard Model of Declarative Memory, where are fully consolidated memories stored?

<p>In the cortex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key observation that led to the Multiple Trace Theory?

<p>Individuals can recall details without recognizing the associated object (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when older memories are recalled according to Multiple Trace Theory?

<p>Reconsolidation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of memory reconsolidation?

<p>Memories are restabilized and may be altered (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the ongoing debate surrounding memory theories suggest?

<p>Evidence exists for various theories but not all amnesiacs fit neatly into one category (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mnemonic is suggested to help understand the process of memory storage?

<p>Memories are 'unboxed' and repackaged for long-term storage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory with no capacity limits, lasting from minutes to a lifetime.

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Model

Early model proposing LTM as a single storage with control processes.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Coding

Connecting information to other information for easier recall.

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Semantic Elaboration

Connecting information to its meaning.

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Mnemonics

Memory aids that make remembering easier.

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Rote Learning

Learning information through repetition without understanding.

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Control Processes

Strategies that influence how information is processed.

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Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list due to more rehearsal and stronger encoding in long-term memory.

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Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list because they are still in short-term memory.

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Consolidation

The process of making a memory stronger and more permanent in long-term memory after initially being formed.

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Sleep and Memory

Sleep is important for strengthening memories and processing information learned during the day.

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Memory reactivation

Activating prior memories with cues, improving long-term memory. This improvement could happen during sleep.

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Stellar Classification Mnemonic

Using a phrase to remember the order of star spectral classes (e.g., "Oh Boy, Another F's Gonna Kill Me").

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Imaging (Memory)

Creating visual images to help remember information.

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Imagery (Memory)

Connecting visual imagery with concepts to improve memorization.

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Serial Position Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list, worse for the middle.

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Rundus (1971)

A study showing that recall from a list is best for beginning and end words.

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Place Cells

Neurons in the hippocampus that activate when an individual is in a specific location, helping the brain create a spatial map.

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Hippocampus

A brain structure crucial for forming new memories, particularly those with spatial and contextual details.

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Semantic Memory

Stores general knowledge, facts, and concepts independent of specific events or contexts.

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Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences, including details of when and where they occurred.

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What type of memory is 'knowing' that a potato is a vegetable?

This is an example of semantic memory, as it represents general knowledge about the world, not a specific personal experience.

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Patient H.M.

A famous case study in neuroscience where a patient experienced severe anterograde amnesia after brain surgery that removed parts of the temporal lobe, including pathways to the hippocampus.

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Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new long-term memories after an event, such as a brain injury.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories from a period of time before a specific event, such as a traumatic brain injury.

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Temporally Graded Amnesia

A type of memory loss where recently formed memories are forgotten more than older memories.

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Standard Model of Declarative Memory

This model proposes that the hippocampus encodes new declarative memories, then transfers them to the cortex over time, making them independent of the hippocampus.

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Hippocampus Role in Memory

The hippocampus initially encodes information about declarative memories, including when and where events occurred.

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Multiple Trace Theory

This theory suggests that every time a memory is retrieved, a new 'trace' is formed, making the hippocampus always involved in recall, even for old memories.

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Memory Reconsolidation

The process of restabilizing a memory after it's been retrieved, potentially altering or updating it.

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Episodic Memory (Reconsolidation)

Memories can change when retrieved through reconsolidation, making them potentially inaccurate.

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Non-Declarative Long-Term Memory

This type of long-term memory refers to memories for skills, habits, and conditioned responses. It's often implicit and not consciously recalled.

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Procedural Memory

Memory for actions, skills, and operations that are learned through practice and repetition, such as riding a bike or typing.

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Striatum & Cerebellum

Brain regions primarily responsible for procedural memory. The striatum is involved in motor control, while the cerebellum coordinates movement.

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Associative Memory

Memory that links together different pieces of information, allowing you to retrieve one piece based on its association with another.

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Emotional Associative Memory

A type of memory involving strong emotions that bind certain information together. It's largely linked to the amygdala.

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Habituation

A decrease in response to a repeated, neutral stimulus over time. For example, you might stop noticing the sound of a ticking clock after a while.

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Sensitization

An increased response to a stimulus following exposure to a strong or intense stimulus. For example, being more sensitive to a light touch after experiencing a painful experience.

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Non-Associative Memory

Learning that occurs without any specific associations, focusing on changes in response to a single stimulus.

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What brain regions are involved in procedural memory?

The striatum, part of the basal ganglia, and the cerebellum are primarily responsible for procedural memory. The striatum helps control movement, while the cerebellum coordinates it.

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Study Notes

Foundations of Cognition I

  • Last Class: Covered short-term memory and working memory.
  • Today: Focus is on long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

  • Interfaces with working memory, allowing for manipulation of information from long-term storage.
  • Declarative LTM: Stores facts and experiences.
  • Procedural LTM: Stores skills and actions.

Early Model: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

  • Long-term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity and duration, with memories lasting from minutes to a lifetime.
  • Unlimited Storage: Unlike short-term memory, LTM doesn't rapidly forget information.
  • Unlimited Duration: Memories can be stored for extended periods, even an entire lifetime.
  • Sensory Registers: (Visual, auditory, haptic) receive environmental input.
  • Short-term Memory (STM): Temporary working memory.
  • Control Processes: (Rehearsal, coding, decisions, retrieval) affect how information is processed.

Control Processes

  • Rehearsal: Repeating verbal information to maintain it in short-term memory, using the phonological loop; a form of rote learning (memorization).
  • Coding: Semantic elaboration of information to help it be remembered better, placing it in context of other information. This makes the information easier to remember.
  • Imaging: Creating visual images to make material easier to remember. This uses the visuospatial sketchpad while encoding.
  • Mnemonics: Memory aids linking complex information to simpler, easier-to-remember information, like a system for classifying star temperatures, which can be remembered with a phrase ("Oh Boy, Another F's Gonna Kill Me").

Rundus (1971): Serial Position Effect

  • Words at the beginning and end of a list are recalled better than those in the middle due to primacy and recency effects.
  • Primacy Effect: Better recall of words at the beginning of a list because they've likely been rehearsed more.
  • Recency Effect: Better recall of words at the end of a list because they are still in short-term memory.

Stages of Long-Term Memory

  • Acquisition: Initial storage of information in long-term memory
  • Retention: Maintaining information, requiring initial encoding and consolidation
  • Retrieval: Recalling information. Consolidation is the process of stabilizing memory traces after initial acquisition. It occurs over time, moving memories to long-term storage.

Sleep & Memory

  • Memories are strengthened during sleep.
  • Targeted memory reactivation (cues presented during sleep) can improve memory.
  • Smith & Weeden (1990): Clock Experiment: Cued group (stimulated during sleep) showed significantly better task improvement up to a week later.
  • Shows that targeted memory reactivation during sleep aids memory consolidation.

Consolidation

  • Hebbian Learning: Synaptic strengthening due to consistent pairing of neuron activities.("Neurons that fire together, wire together" – Hebb).
  • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A lasting increase in synaptic strength after repeated stimulation, strengthening connections between neurons that repeatedly fire together. This is thought to be a biological mechanism supporting long-term memory formation.
  • Bliss & Lømo (1973): Discovered LTP, a vital mechanism for LTM.
  • NMDA Receptors: Channels on neurons; blocked by magnesium ions and need both action potential and glutamate to open, strengthening the connection when two neurons fire together.

Memory Encodings

  • Engram (memory trace): Imprinted physical information. A theoretical physical representation of memories in the brain. LTP is a potential process for engrams.

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Declarative (Explicit) Memory: Requires conscious recall. Includes episodic and semantic memories. - Episodic Memories: Event-based memories, including context (where, when). - Semantic Memories: General knowledge.
  • Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory: Doesn't require conscious recall. Includes procedural memories, classical conditioning, and other types of associative and non-associative learning

Episodic Memory

  • Stores specific events and their context (time, location).
  • Place Cells: Neurons in the hippocampus that activate when an individual is in a specific location. Used in spatial mapping, enabling the brain to map an environment.

Semantic Memory

  • Stores general knowledge, not tied to a specific event (e.g., facts, concepts, categorical knowledge). Storage is distributed throughout association areas in the brain.

Patient H.M. (Henry Molaison)

  • Had surgery removing parts of temporal lobe, including connections to the hippocampus to control seizures.
  • Experienced severe anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) but his short-term memory and intelligence remained intact.
  • Highlights the importance of hippocampus to memory function.
  • Temporally-Graded Amnesia: recent events forgotten more than older memories.

Standard Model of Declarative Memory

  • Hippocampus: Initially encodes information, including context like time and place.
  • Cortex: Over time, memories transfer from the hippocampus to the cortex; fully consolidated memories are stored in the cortex.

Multiple Trace Theory

  • New trace formed in the brain with every retrieval attempt.
  • Hippocampus is always (even for old memories) involved.
  • Memories, on recall, are altered, through a process called reconsolidation.

Procedural Memories

  • Memory of actions and skills (e.g., tying your shoes).
  • Associated with the striatum and cerebellum (part of the basal ganglia).
  • Damage to these areas causes a loss of procedural abilities.

Associative Memory

  • Information Retrieval based on related cues. Ex: Classical Conditioning (learning a fear).

Non-Associative Memory

  • Learning without associations. Covers Habituation (decrease in response after repeated stimulus) and Sensitization (increase in response after a strong stimulus)
  • Usually involves a reflex-arc type local mechanism

Eric Kandel: Gill Withdrawal Reflex

  • Demonstrated that LTP underlies the formation of simple memories, like reflexes (e.g., aplysia's gill withdrawal) from non-associative learning like habituation.

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Description

Explore the intricacies of long-term memory as we delve into its components, including declarative and procedural memory. This quiz also covers the foundational model proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin, analyzing how memories are stored, retrieved, and manipulated over time. Test your understanding of control processes that influence memory retention.

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