module 2 - proteins, carbs, lipids, and nucleic acid

Protein Structure and Function

• Hydrogen bonds in proteins are disrupted by forces such as heat, pH changes, or chemicals, leading to denaturation.
• Denaturation can cause proteins to lose their functional shape, rendering them inactive and potentially harmful to biological processes.
• The most common form of glucose in the body is d-glucose.

Carbohydrates

• Disaccharides are formed by a glycosidic linkage, joining two monosaccharides.

Lipids

• Lipids that are insoluble in water include triglycerides and phospholipids.

Macromolecules

• Four primary macromolecule categories found in the body: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Amino acids are composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain (R group).

Protein Structure Levels

• Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• Four hierarchical levels of protein structure: primary, secondary (alpha helices and beta sheets), tertiary (3D shape), quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
• The tertiary structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges.

Lipid Types

• Fatty acids can be classified based on their melting points; saturated fatty acids typically have the highest melting point.
• Unsaturated fatty acids possess lower melting points due to their double bonds, which create kinks in the chain.

Enzymes and Nucleic Acids

• Enzymes speed up chemical reactions but do not alter the equilibrium of reactions.
• The nucleotide formed from deoxyribose and a base is called deoxynucleotide.
• Pyrimidines are a type of nitrogenous base, including cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

Characteristics of Amino Acids

• Different side chains (R groups) confer unique chemical properties to amino acids, such as polarity and charge.

DNA Structure

• DNA structure is characterized by a double helix, composed of two strands running in opposite directions.
• DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands during replication by adding nucleotides complementary to the template strand.

RNA Functions

• RNA is generally more versatile than DNA; it includes messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) serves to convey genetic information from DNA for protein synthesis.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

Mutation Analysis

• The double-stranded DNA sequence corresponding to the mRNA AUGUCAGAUCCUUAA needs to be deduced and may involve transcriptional complementarity.
• Amino acid sequences from the translated mRNA can reveal mutations by comparing them to original sequences, analyzing if they are missense, nonsense, or silent mutations.
• Missense mutations can affect protein folding and function, while nonsense mutations typically lead to premature termination of protein synthesis.

Effects of Mutation

• Mutations can impact protein folding, stability, and function, potentially leading to disease or altered physiological processes.

Test your knowledge of fatty acids and lipids in this quiz. Explore topics such as carboxyl groups, hydrocarbon chains, ester attaching linkages, and more. Learn about the composition and characteristics of different fatty acids, including saturated and unsaturated ones. Discover the role of lipids in the body and their melting points.