Exploring Correlation

Social questions and problems can be studied _____________

Hindsight Bias: The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted the outcome after knowing that it _______________

Biased perceptions of outcomes for events that actually happened

Variable: Any factor or attribute that can assume two or more ___________

An event or behaviour that has at least two ___________

Theory: An organized set of principles that can be used to explain observed ___________

Dependent ______

Internal ______

Random ______

Probability ______

Construct ______

External ______

Operational Definition: The precise specification of how variables are measured or manipulated. Use  Defining a variable in terms of the ______ used to measure or manipulate it. Convert an abstract, hypothetical, or nonobservable construct into things that can be measured. Example: Ecological values

Observational Method: The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour. Varies in the degree to which the observer interacts with the situation/observees. Useful for observing the behaviour of a ______. Must clearly define the behaviours of interest

Naturalistic Observation: Watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation. E.g., observe behaviour at minor ______ games

Ethnography: The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside without imposing any preconceived notions they might have. Example: Festinger, Riecken, & Schacter (1956) studied a cult whose leader predicted the end of the ______. How would believers react when the event didn’t happen

Correlation Coefficient: assesses the relationship between two ______. Values range from -1.00 to +1.

Correlational Method: A technique where researchers systematically measure two or more variables and assess the relation between them. Can involve predicting one variable from another (______)

Quasi-experimental designs (not true experiments) Field experiments have presumed ______ validity o Technically, good ecological validity Examples: o Latané & Darley (1970): Robbers in a convenience store o Piliavin et al. (1969): A collapse at the subway station • IVs: Drunk or Ill, black or white • Diffusion of responsibility was not supported in this study

The Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist  Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist: o There is a trade-off between internal and ______ validity Both experimental and field research are important o And correlational research too. o Collections of research studies give a better picture than individual studies.

Replication: o Repeating a study to determine if the findings can be ______ o Verify conclusions using an independent research study (and sample)

How is evidence collected. o Literature reviews of studies o Narrative reviews o ______ • A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable

Researchers must prioritize the health and welfare of their participants o Must follow TCPS-2 Guidelines and Principles o Research Ethics Board (REB): • An independent institutional committee that evaluates whether proposed research projects with human participants complies with the TCPS-2 principles and guidelines. Social Psychologists must be especially concerned with ______ o Topics could cause people some forms of harm o Want psychological realism: informed consent vs. reactivity and deception • The procedure whereby participants are misled about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire.

Debriefing: o A conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional information about the study. Goals of Debriefing: o Provide complete information about the study, including about deception that was used o Give participants a chance to ask questions o Minimize adverse effects o Maximize likelihood that they will feel positively about participation o To ask for cooperation in not discussing the study with others who might ______