Exploring Correlation

The outcome variable the researcher is interested in.

The extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences.

The process whereby all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment.

How likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable(s).

The issue of whether the constructs (conceptual variables) that researchers claim to be studying are, in fact, the constructs that they are truly manipulating and measuring.

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.

The basic dilemma of the social psychologist is the trade-off between internal and external validity.

Replication is the act of repeating a study to determine if the findings can be reproduced.

The purpose of replication with variation is to repeat a study with different populations, settings, methods, or measures.

The TCPS-2 guidelines and principles are ethical guidelines that researchers must follow to prioritize the health and welfare of their participants.

A Research Ethics Board (REB) is an independent institutional committee that evaluates whether proposed research projects with human participants comply with the TCPS-2 principles and guidelines.

Debriefing is a conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional information about the study. Its goals are to provide complete information about the study, including about deception that was used, give participants a chance to ask questions, minimize adverse effects, maximize the likelihood that they will feel positively about participation, and ask for cooperation in not discussing the study with others who might participate.

Positive correlation refers to a relationship between two variables in which higher scores or levels of one variable are associated with higher scores or levels of another variable. For example, as the amount of exercise increases, the level of physical fitness also increases.

Negative correlation refers to a relationship between two variables in which higher scores or levels of one variable are associated with lower scores or levels of another variable. For example, as the amount of time spent studying decreases, the test scores tend to decrease.

The range of values for correlation is -1.00 to +1.00.

A value of +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a perfect correlation.

The three requirements for establishing causation are: 1. Covariation of X and Y (as X changes, Y changes), 2. Temporal order (changes in X occur before changes in Y), 3. Absence of plausible alternative explanations (X must be the only or best explanation for changes in Y).

The purpose of experimentation in social psychological research is to allow for causal inferences and describe the mechanisms of the social psychological world.

An operational definition is a precise specification of how variables are measured or manipulated. It is used to define a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or manipulate it. The purpose of an operational definition is to convert abstract, hypothetical, or nonobservable constructs into things that can be measured.

Theories are explanations for a set of observations or phenomena, while hypotheses are specific predictions derived from theories that can be tested through research.

Observational methods involve observing people and systematically recording measurements of their behavior. They are useful for studying the behavior of a group and can vary in the degree to which the observer interacts with the situation/observees.

Naturalistic observation is the act of watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation. It is used to observe behavior as it naturally occurs, without any interference.

Archival analysis is a form of observational method where the researcher examines accumulated documents or archives of a culture. Examples of documents that can be examined include diaries, novels, newspapers, photographs, personal letters, government documents, emails, corporate bylaws, advertisements, and magazines.

A correlation coefficient is a numerical value that assesses the relationship between two variables. It measures the strength and direction of the relationship, with values ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Hindsight bias refers to the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict an outcome after knowing that it occurred. An example of hindsight bias is when someone claims they knew all along that a certain event would happen, even though they did not actually predict it.

In the context of social psychology, a variable is any factor or attribute that can have two or more values. It can be an event or behavior that has at least two outcomes, or an aspect of a testing condition that can be changed or changes as a result of manipulation.

A theory is an organized set of principles that explains observed phenomena, providing a framework for understanding relationships between variables or events. On the other hand, a hypothesis is a testable statement or idea about the relationship between two or more variables.

Social questions and problems can be studied scientifically through systematic and empirical investigation. This involves putting ideas to the test and conducting research using rigorous methods and data collection techniques.

The purpose of conducting empirical research in social psychology is to gather evidence-based knowledge and understanding about social phenomena. It allows researchers to test hypotheses, make informed conclusions, and contribute to the scientific understanding of human behavior.

An example of a biased perception of outcomes for events that actually happened is when someone believes they could have predicted the outcome of a sports match after knowing the final score, even though they did not make any accurate predictions during the game.