Topic 2__Research Methods in Social Psychology__SV (3).pptx

Research Methods in Social Psychology Topic 2 Social Psychology: An Empirical Science  Social questions and problems can be studied scientifically o Put ideas to the test: systematic, empirical investigation Hindsight Bias: • The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predic...

Research Methods in Social Psychology Topic 2 Social Psychology: An Empirical Science  Social questions and problems can be studied scientifically o Put ideas to the test: systematic, empirical investigation Hindsight Bias: • The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted the outcome after knowing that it occurred Example: Fischhoff & Beyth (1975) o Biased perceptions of outcomes for events that actually happened Picture: The Decision Lab Variables Variable: Any factor or attribute that can assume two or more values (i.e., a factor that varies) An event or behaviour that has at least two outcomes An aspect of a testing condition that can be changed or changes as the result of a manipulation Something that varies Examples: o Self-esteem; aggression; love; attitudes Theories and Hypotheses  Theory o An organized set of principles that can be used to explain observed phenomena o A set of formal statements that specifies how and why variables or events are related. o Based on reason and systematic empiricism  Hypothesis: o A testable statement or idea about the relationship between two or more variables. Operational Definition  Operational Definition: o The precise specification of how variables are measured or manipulated o Use  Defining a variable in terms of the procedures used to measure or manipulate it Convert an abstract, hypothetical, or nonobservable construct into things that can be measured o Example: Ecological values Theories and Hypotheses Inspiration for science: hypotheses, research, & theories o Personal interests, everyday observations and experiences, current events o Limitations of previous research and theories  Example: Kitty Genovese o Murdered and NY Times reported that nobody helped o This was due to “apathy” from big city life o Latané & Darley: considered the situation • Diffusion of responsibility o Led to decades of research Research Designs: Overview Observational Methods o Naturalistic observation o Archival methods  Correlational Methods o Surveys  Experimental Methods o Laboratory Experiments o Field Experiments All methods have their strengths and weaknesses Observational Methods  Observational Method: o The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour o Varies in the degree to which the observer interacts with the situation/observees Useful for observing the behaviour of a group Must clearly define the behaviours of interest Naturalistic Observation Watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation o E.g., observe behaviour at minor hockey games Observational Methods Ethnography: o The method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside without imposing any preconceived notions they might have. Example: Festinger, Riecken, & Schacter (1956) o Studied a cult whose leader predicted the end of the world o How would believers react when the event didn’t happen? Observational Methods: Archival Research  Archival Analysis: o A form of the observational method whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents or archives, of a culture Examples: o Diaries, novels, newspapers, photographs, personal letters o Government documents, emails, corporate bylaws o Advertisements, magazines Correlation: The Basics  Correlational Method: o A technique where researchers systematically measure two or more variables and assess the relation between them. o Can involve predicting one variable from another (regression) Correlation Coefficient: assesses the relationship between two variables o Values range from -1.00 to +1.00 Positive and Negative Correlation Positive Correlation: higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with higher scores or levels of another variable o As X increases, Y increases; As X decreases, Y decreases Negative Correlation: higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be associated with lower scores or levels of another variable o As X increases, Y decreases; As X decreases, Y increases Values range from -1.00 to +1.00 o + = positive correlation o - = negative correlation o -.51 is a stronger relationship than +.29 A value of +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a perfect correlation Correlational Method  Surveys: o Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behaviour  Representative Sample: a subset of cases that reflects the important characteristics of the population o Population: any group of interest  Random Selection: everyone in a population has an equal chance of being selected into the sample Benefits of Surveys Efficient and broad in scope o Online, telephone, mail, in-person Can be representative of large groups o E.g., Minority experiences Can investigate associations & make predictions o E.g., friendships and life satisfaction Studies relationships other methods cannot o E.g., Bullying and self-esteem or academic performance Limitations of the Correlational Method  Correlation does not establish causation  Causal Inferences require: 1. Covariation of X and Y = As X changes, Y changes 2. Temporal Order: Changes in X occur before changes in Y 3. Absence of plausible alternative explanations – X must be the only (or best) explanation for changes in Y  Example: Media violence and aggression Experimentation  Experimentation is the “crown jewel” of social psychological research o Allows for causal inferences  describe the mechanisms of the social psychological world  Experimental Method: o o o o An independent variable is manipulated Participants are randomly assigned to conditions Control is exercised so nothing else changes (besides IVs) A dependent variable is measured Example: Latané & Darley (1968) o Staged an “emergency” o Manipulated how many people Ps thought were present o People who thought there were more people listening helped less Independent and Dependent Variables  Independent Variable: o The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable (i.e., the DV) o The presumed “cause” in the cause-and-effect relationship Dependent Variable: o The outcome variable the researcher is interested in o The “effect” in the causeand-effect relationship Internal Validity  Internal Validity: o The extent to which we can draw cause-andeffect inferences o Ensuring that nothing other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; control all extraneous variables and randomly assign to groups (conditions)  Example: Latané & Darley (1968) o Only the number of “bystanders” changed o Not the room type, emergency, nor the exact wording of the victim…. o Except the Ps were different people Random Assignment & pValues Random Assignment o The process whereby all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment o Individual differences are balanced out  groups are considered equal based on the laws of probability Probability Level (p-value): o A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance an not because of the independent variable(s). o p < 0.05 = less than 5/100 results are attributable to chance factors, not the IV(s). o Statistical significance does not equal practical significance. Construct Validity Construct Validity: o The issue of whether the constructs (conceptual variables) that researchers claim to be studying are, in fact, the constructs that they are truly manipulating and measuring o Affected by how faithfully the operational definition measures the construct o Applies to all variables Measurement is imperfect Example: Latané & Darley (1968) o Did the emergency situation really convince External Validity  External Validity: o The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people Experiments may not approximate the real world  Two kinds of generalizability: o Across situations o Across people External Validity  Generalizations across situations o Lab experiments are important for determining causation but are necessarily different from real world situations. Psychological realism: o The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life. o Often contrasted with mundane realism o Cover stories enhance psychological realism Example: Latané & Darley (1968) o Did the emergency situation engage people in the same way a that real world experience would have? External Validity Generalizations across people o Who participates in the research? o How do the findings apply (or fail to apply) to other groups? Random selection? Example: Latané & Darley (1968) o What if the participants were anyone but university students? Field Research  Field Experiments: o Experiments conducted in natural settings, rather than in the laboratory. o Quasi-experimental designs (not true experiments) Field experiments have presumed external validity o Technically, good ecological validity Examples: o Latané & Darley (1970): Robbers in a convenience store o Piliavin et al. (1969): A collapse at the subway station • IVs: Drunk or Ill, black or white • Diffusion of responsibility was not supported in this study The Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist  Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist: o There is a trade-off between internal and external validity Both experimental and field research are important o And correlational research too! o Collections of research studies give a better picture than individual studies. External Validity: Replication  Replication: o Repeating a study to determine if the findings can be reproduced o Verify conclusions using an independent research study (and sample)  Replication with Variation: repeat a study with different populations, settings, methods, or measures. How is evidence collected? o Literature reviews of studies o Narrative reviews o Meta-analysis • A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable Ethics in Social Psychology Ethics: o A set of moral principles or standards Researchers must prioritize the health and welfare of their participants o Must follow TCPS-2 Guidelines and Principles o Research Ethics Board (REB): • An independent institutional committee that evaluates whether proposed research projects with human participants complies with the TCPS-2 principles and guidelines. Social Psychologists must be especially concerned with ethics o Topics could cause people some forms of harm o Want psychological realism: informed consent vs. reactivity and deception • The procedure whereby participants are misled about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire. Guidelines for Ethical Research Debriefing Debriefing: o A conversation or communication with the participant that conveys additional information about the study. Goals of Debriefing: o Provide complete information about the study, including about deception that was used o Give participants a chance to ask questions o Minimize adverse effects o Maximize likelihood that they will feel positively about participation o To ask for cooperation in not discussing the study with others who might participate