Evolution and Aristotle's Perspectives
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Questions and Answers

Which of these options are correct about Aristotle's view on life? (Select all that apply)

  • Life forms are arranged on a ladder scale of increasing complexity. (correct)
  • Life forms are fixed and unchanging. (correct)
  • Each life form has a permanent spot on the ladder. (correct)
  • Life forms evolve over time.

    • Carolus Linnaeus believed that similarities among species were due to their evolutionary kinship.

    False

    What is the term used to describe the similarity between species that arises from a common ancestor?

    Homology

    Which of these describes how geologic changes occur, according to Hutton and Lyell?

    <p>Through slow but continuous processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lamarck's theory of evolution was ultimately correct.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process where groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of new species?

    <p>Divergent evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a type of evidence used to support the theory of evolution?

    <p>Scientific creationism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process whereby groups from different ancestors evolve similar structures in response to similar environmental demands?

    <p>Convergent evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the four parts of how evolution by natural selection works?

    <p>Artificial selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Natural selection can act only on heritable traits.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Evolution is a process that is goal-directed.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between Lamarck's and Darwin's theories of evolution?

    <p>Lamarck believed in the inheritance of acquired traits, while Darwin believed in the role of natural selection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of natural selection on a population's gene pool?

    <p>It enhances the adaptation of organisms to their environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetic drift is a predictable process that affects allele frequencies in larger populations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe the process that leads to the increase in frequency of alleles that increase fitness?

    <p>natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutation rates tend to be lower in ______ and ______ compared to microorganisms.

    <p>animals, plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of natural selection to their descriptions:

    <p>Directional selection = Favors individuals at one extreme of the phenotypic range Disruptive selection = Favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range Stabilizing selection = Favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the physical expression of a trait in an organism?

    <p>Phenotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A homozygous genotype consists of two different alleles for a trait.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of genetic variation in evolution?

    <p>Genetic variation allows populations to adapt to changing environments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diploid organisms have ___ alleles at each genetic locus.

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Heterozygous = Having two different alleles for a trait Homozygous = Having two identical alleles for a trait Genotype = The genetic makeup of an organism Gene pool = The total diversity of genes in a population or species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits can be inherited?

    <p>Skin color</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetic diversity within a species can hinder its ability to survive environmental changes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the average size of bighorn sheep horns due to trophy hunting?

    <p>The average size of males and their horns decreases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean for a population to be at genetic equilibrium?

    <p>Allele frequencies remain constant from one generation to the next.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microevolution occurs when allele frequencies do not change over generations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two alleles involved in the example of flower color?

    <p>CR and CW</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sum of the allele frequencies of CR and CW equals _____

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, which condition must be met for a population to be in equilibrium?

    <p>Mating must be random.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Hardy-Weinberg Principle can be used to predict genotype frequencies when a population is evolving.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it indicate if allele frequencies change in a population?

    <p>Evolution is occurring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is microevolution primarily concerned with?

    <p>Genetic changes within a population over generations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microevolution results in the development of new species.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the environmental condition that favorably impacted the survival of large-beaked ground finches?

    <p>Severe drought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a population of 1000 individuals, if the frequency of genotype AA is 0.49, then the number of AA individuals is _____?

    <p>490</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the genotype with its corresponding number of individuals in the population:

    <p>AA = 490 Aa = 420 aa = 90</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects allele frequency in a population?

    <p>Allele frequency is the proportion of a specific allele in a population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetic equilibrium occurs when allele frequencies remain constant across generations.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many total alleles are represented in a population of 1000 diploid individuals?

    <p>2000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the value of frequency q, the recessive allele, in the flower population?

    <p>0.2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Hardy-Weinberg Principle states that allele frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating the genotype frequencies in a population?

    <p>p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a population under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype is represented by ______.

    <p>q^2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following frequencies with their definitions:

    <p>p^2 = Frequency of homozygous dominant genotype 2pq = Frequency of heterozygous genotype q^2 = Frequency of homozygous recessive genotype p + q = Sum of allele frequencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If the frequency of the dominant allele T is 0.84, what is the predicted frequency of the recessive allele t?

    <p>0.16</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does microevolution refer to?

    <p>Evolution that occurs in populations over generations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to predict genotype frequencies based solely on dominant allele frequency.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What proportion of the population in the example problem are heterozygous tongue rollers?

    <p>0.32</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetic variation is essential for evolutionary mechanisms like natural selection to function.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a gene?

    <p>A section of DNA that contains the instructions for a trait.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The total diversity of genes and alleles in a population is known as the ______.

    <p>gene pool</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terms to their definitions:

    <p>Allele = A variant form of a gene Mutation = A change in an organism's DNA Genotype = The genetic makeup of an organism Phenotype = The observable traits of an organism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about allele frequency is true?

    <p>Allele frequency refers to how often an allele occurs in a population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Humans are diploid organisms with one complete set of chromosomes from each parent.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'diploid' refer to?

    <p>An organism with two sets of chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of macroevolution?

    <p>Evolutionary change above the species level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The biological species concept emphasizes morphological traits in distinguishing species.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of reproductive isolating mechanisms?

    <p>Prezygotic barriers and postzygotic barriers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ___ isolation occurs when two species occupy different habitats within the same area.

    <p>Habitat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of temporal isolation?

    <p>Two species in the same area but mating at different times of the year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of reproductive barrier with its description:

    <p>Habitat isolation = Species rarely encounter each other due to different habitats Temporal isolation = Species breed at different times Behavioral isolation = Differences in mating rituals prevent interbreeding Mechanical isolation = Structural differences prevent successful mating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Postzygotic barriers occur before fertilization takes place.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define speciation in the context of evolution.

    <p>The process by which one species splits into two or more distinct species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes reduced hybrid viability?

    <p>Hybrids fail to survive due to genetic incompatibility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hybrid breakdown refers to the first-generation hybrids being sterile.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by reduced hybrid fertility?

    <p>Hybrids may be healthy and vigorous but are sterile.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process leading to the accumulation of genetic differences between populations, eventually leading to speciation, is called __________.

    <p>genetic drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the postzygotic barriers with their descriptions:

    <p>Reduced hybrid viability = Hybrids do not develop or survive. Reduced hybrid fertility = Hybrids are sterile despite being healthy. Hybrid breakdown = Offspring of hybrids are feeble or sterile. Speciation = Accumulation of genetic differences between populations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following barriers allows fertilization to occur but results in sterile hybrids?

    <p>Reduced hybrid fertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The biological species concept can be applied to asexual organisms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one limitation of the biological species concept?

    <p>It cannot be applied to asexual organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept characterizes a species based on body shape, size, and structural features?

    <p>Morphological species concept</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sympatric speciation requires geographic separation of populations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism driving allopatric speciation?

    <p>Geographic separation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of speciation with its description:

    <p>Allopatric Speciation = Geographic separation restricts gene flow Sympatric Speciation = Occurs within overlapping populations due to reproductive barriers Morphological Species Concept = Focuses on structure and form Ecological Species Concept = Defined by ecological niche</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a mechanism of allopatric speciation?

    <p>Genetic drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Different selective pressures in different environments do not impact the evolution of separated populations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a well-known example of allopatric speciation?

    <p>Different species of snapping shrimp separated by the Isthmus of Panama</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of group includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants?

    <p>Monophyletic group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A polytomy indicates that descendant lineages have speciation events that occurred at different times.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the branches in an evolutionary tree?

    <p>They represent a lineage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A group that includes some but not all descendants is called a __________ group.

    <p>paraphyletic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following descriptions with the appropriate terms:

    <p>Monophyletic group = Includes a common ancestor and all its descendants Paraphyletic group = Includes a common ancestor and some descendants Polytomy = Node with more than two descendant lineages Speciation = The process of forming new species from a common ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a prezygotic barrier?

    <p>Habitat isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gametic isolation occurs when species cannot mate due to differences in their reproductive organs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reproductive barrier is described by the inability of two species to mate due to different mating seasons?

    <p>Temporal isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mating may be attempted, but morphological differences can lead to __________ isolation, preventing successful reproduction.

    <p>mechanical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of prezygotic barriers to their descriptions:

    <p>Behavioral Isolation = Courtship rituals that attract mates Temporal Isolation = Breed at different times of the year Habitat Isolation = Separated by geographical or spatial barriers Mechanical Isolation = Morphological differences prevent successful mating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a consequence of prezygotic barriers?

    <p>Successful hybrid offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of morphological characters in phylogenetic analysis?

    <p>They help in building the phylogenetic tree based on observable traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Behavioral isolation can occur when populations develop different courtship rituals.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sister taxa share a common ancestor that is not shared with any other groups.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step after sequencing DNA in molecular phylogeny?

    <p>Aligning comparable sequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main process that prezygotic barriers like habitat isolation can lead to over time?

    <p>speciation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A lineage that evolved early and remains unbranched is known as a __________ taxon.

    <p>basal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do closely related species differ in their DNA sequences?

    <p>They differ at only one or a few regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Taxonomists sometimes classify species into groups they are not closely related to.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define what is meant by 'unique characters' in the context of species.

    <p>Traits that are specific to a single species and not shared with any others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Lecture 2: Intro to Evolution

    • Natural Selection: Characteristics within a population vary. Variations that enhance reproductive success increase within the population.
    • Darwin's quote: "It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent, but the one most adaptable to change."

    Darwin: On the Origin of Species

    • Today's organisms descended from ancestral species that were different from modern species. Evolution explains life's unity and diversity.
    • Natural selection is the mechanism for evolutionary change. Natural selection results in adaptive evolution.
    • Evolution's basic idea: a population can change over time through descent with modification.

    Similarities and Differences Among Earth's Species

    • Species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments.
    • Species share similar features due to shared ancestry, resulting in the accumulation of differences.

    Scale of Nature & Classification of Species

    • Aristotle viewed species as fixed and unchanging, arranged on a "scala naturae" (scale of increasing complexity).
    • Aristotle's views were consistent with the old testament account of creation, holding that species were individually designed by God.
    • Carolus Linnaeus founded taxonomy, grouping similar species into categories. He did not attribute resemblances among species to evolutionary kinship, but rather to a pattern of creation.

    The Method & Process of Science

    • Observations, generate questions
    • Questions based on observations.
    • Research on the observations to look for information.
    • Hypothesis formulate a testable explanation(s)
    • Predictions specific outcomes if the hypothesis is correct
    • Test and Experiment Collect data to collect evidence to support or reject hypothesis
    • Results and Conclusions Analyze data, draw conclusions and reject or revise your hypothesis.

    Lamarck & Evolution

    • Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck proposed a theory of evolution.
    • He compared living species with fossils to identify lines of descent.
    • Lamarck's principles:
      1. Use and disuse: Use of a trait causes the trait to develop; Disuse of a trait causes the trait to diminish.
      1. Inheritance of acquired traits: Traits acquired during an organism's lifetime can be passed down to their offspring.
    • Lamarck's ideas were ultimately incorrect, but he recognized that the environment influences evolution.

    The Study of Fossils

    • Fossils are remains or traces of organisms.
    • Fossils within sedimentary layers show the succession of organisms throughout time.
    • Sedimentary rock layers show evolutionary sequence (older = bottom, younger = top)
    • French scientist Georges Cuvier noted that fossils in older strata are more dissimilar to modern life than those in newer strata. This supports the idea of extinctions.
    • Cuvier proposed catastrophism, suggesting that boundaries between strata result from local floods or droughts that destroyed species.

    Influence on Darwin's Thinking: Essay on the Principle of Population

    • Thomas Malthus argued that populations grow geometrically, but food supply increases arithmetically.
    • This imbalance leads to famine, war, and disease, suggesting that only a fraction of a population will survive and reproduce.

    Influence on Darwin's Thinking: Artificial Selection

    • Humans have modified domesticated plants and animals by selecting individuals with desired traits.
    • Breeders and farmers develop many varieties in just a few generations over thousands of years. Humans have 'designed' 400 breeds of domesticated dogs across 14,000 years.

    Artificial Selection Example

    • Organisms from a common wild ancestor can change greatly through artificial selection.
    • Darwin reasoned that if artificial selection could cause substantial change over a relatively short period, then natural selection should be able to cause far more significant change over thousands of generations.

    Influence on Darwin's Thinking: Hutton & Lyell - Geological Data

    • Hutton and Lyell proposed that profound geological change results from slow, continuous processes, rather than sudden events.
    • Geological observations supports the antiquity of Earth, which is essential to Darwin's theory.

    Darwin's Voyage on the Beagle

    • Darwin's 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle (1831) was the foundation for his theory of evolution.
    • He observed adaptations among plants and animals living in diverse environments (e.g., plants and animals in South America closely resembled species in the tropical regions of South America more than plants and animals in Europe).

    Collected Data: Galapagos Islands

    • Darwin was fascinated by the unusual organisms found in the Galapagos Islands.
    • He hypothesized that the islands' organisms originated and diversified from mainland species.
    • Darwin observed various adaptations of plants and animals, e.g., variations in the beak sizes of Galapagos finches are adaptations to different food sources.

    Alfred Russel Wallace

    • Wallace independently developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin's.
    • Published his manuscript to Darwin, which prompted Darwin to publish "On the Origin of Species."

    How Evolution by Natural Selection Works: Part 1

    • Species can produce more offspring than the environment can sustain.
    • Populations would increase exponentially in the absence of limiting factors.

    How Evolution by Natural Selection Works: Part 2

    • Environmental resources are limited.
    • Competition among organisms exists, with only a fraction of offspring surviving.
    • Organisms compete for limited resources (food, water, light, space) or get killed by predators, disease, or unfavorable environmental conditions.

    How Evolution by Natural Selection Works: Part 3

    • Members of a population vary in their characteristics because of genes.
    • Organisms have variation in their genes, which can be heritable.
    • Differences in DNA cause individuals to have different characteristics.

    How Evolution by Natural Selection Works: Part 4

    • Individuals with beneficial adaptations are more likely to survive and reproduce.
    • This leads to higher fitness of individuals. Individuals with inherited traits that offer a high probability to survive and reproduce leave more offspring compared to those with less advantageous traits.
    • Favorable characteristics accumulate in a population over generations, leading to adaptation.
    • Individuals within a population must differ in at least one given trait, otherwise natural selection cannot work.
    • Variations in observable traits must be heritable, encoded, and passed through DNA to be the target of natural selection.

    Fitness and Adaptation

    • Fitness: the relative ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its environment. Adaption is a trait that increases an individual's relative fitness.
    • Natural selection acts on individuals but populations evolve.

    Mechanism of Natural Selection

    • The natural environment selects for certain traits among variant traits in a population.
    • The process of evolution has two linked processes:
      1. Random generation of variability
      1. Selection of suitable characteristics.

    Important Points about Evolution through Natural Selection

    • Natural selection occurs through interactions between individual organisms and their environment; individuals do not evolve, populations do.
    • Natural selection acts only on heritable traits, traits that are passed from organisms to their offspring.
    • Environmental factors vary; favorable traits in one environment may be useless or detrimental in another environment.
    • Evolution is not about progress toward a single, ultimate goal.

    Higher/Lower -- Not What Darwin Said

    • Terms like "higher" and "lower" organisms stem from the concept of a great chain of being(scala naturae)
    • Aristotle's concept of a great chain of beings with order of increasing complexity was later influenced by European religious ideas.
    • In evolutionary perspective, all organisms are on the same level of importance. The process of evolutionary divergence simply adapts different species to their respective environments through the process of natural selection.

    Evidence for Natural Selection

    • Direct observation of evolutionary change: Examples include the peppered moth and antibiotic resistance.
    • Homology (anatomy, development, and molecular): Similar structures (homologous structures) in different species, but with different functions reflect shared ancestry. e.g., arm, cat forelimb, and whale flipper, bat wing. Molecular homologies are similarities in the DNA or amino acid sequence. e.g., sequence difference among species in hemoglobin protein.
    • Vestigial structures/organs: Seemingly useless organs or structures in current organisms reflect shared ancestry to which the structure was functional.
    • Convergent evolution (Analogous structures): Similar structures in unrelated species that developed independently due to adaptation to similar environments, but not a shared ancestry, e.g., wings of birds and insects.
    • Fossil evidence: provides a record of evolutionary transitions over time; fossils document important transitions in species. For example, the transitions from land to sea in the ancestors of cetaceans (mammals adapted to aquatic life).
    • Biogeography: The geographic distribution of species supports the hypothesis that species evolved from common ancestors that migrated over time and eventually adapted to separate environments.
    • Compromises/Bad design: Organisms' traits may reflect adaptations that are not ideal solutions.

    Natural Selection in Action: Peppered Moth

    • Moths living on birch trees (white trunks) showed changes in their coloration after the industrial revolution.
    • Before the industrial revolution, white moths were predominantly observed.
    • After the industrial revolution, soot darkened the tree trunks causing black moths to be more visible and more susceptible; therefore the frequency of black moths increased.

    Natural Selection in Action: Antibiotic Resistance

    • Drug use selects for pathogens with chance mutations that make them resistant to the drugs' effects.
    • Drug resistant bacteria multiply increasing their frequency and causing a harmful spread.

    More Examples of Natural Selection

    • Soapberry bugs: Beak lengths of soapberry bugs vary depending on where they feed based on the food available (size of the fruits), as larger fruits require longer beaks, and smaller fruits shorter beaks. The beak length of soapberry bugs is a selective adaptation to their respective food source, supporting natural selection.

    Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms

    • Selection acts only on existing variations. New advantageous alleles do not arise on demand.
    • Evolution is constrained by its history.
    • Adaptations are often compromises; organisms often have to compromise when developing traits.
    • Chance events, natural selection, and the environment interact in a non–predictable fashion.

    Learning Objectives

    • Understand natural selection, the 4 steps in its mechanism, all the background information Darwin used to develop his idea, and who Wallace was
    • Be able to describe scientific evidence to support the theory of natural selection.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on Aristotle's views on life, the principles of evolution, and the theories proposed by key figures in the field. This quiz covers concepts such as natural selection, similarities among species, and geological changes, challenging your understanding of evolution's foundations.

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