Critical Eval Weeks 1-4

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Questions and Answers

Which aspect of the scientific method emphasizes the importance of making observations available for evaluation by others?

Objective

Empirical

Hypothetical

Public (correct)

What is the primary purpose of a hypothesis in scientific research?

To present conclusive results

To provide a basis for experimentation (correct)

To prove existing theories

To summarize previous research

Which element is NOT part of the PICO framework used to formulate foreground questions?

Consequences (correct)

Intervention

Patient

Outcome

In which section of a research paper would you typically find information about the limitations of the study?

Discussion Signup and view all the answers

Which ethical concern is primarily addressed by the Nuremberg Code?

Informed consent Signup and view all the answers

What does empirical mean in the context of scientific inquiry?

Grounded in observations Signup and view all the answers

How can biases and opinions be minimized in scientific research?

By structuring observations objectively Signup and view all the answers

Which step in the scientific method comes immediately after formulating a hypothesis?

Procedure Signup and view all the answers

What must be ensured before conducting research involving human subjects?

Informed consent Signup and view all the answers

Which study is associated with the examination of authority and its effects on behavior?

Milgram Study Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of an operational definition in research?

To define abstract concepts in measurable terms Signup and view all the answers

How are validity and reliability related in research measurements?

Reliability is necessary for validity but not vice versa Signup and view all the answers

What type of validity is established when a new measure correlates positively with an existing measure of the same variable?

Concurrent validity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scales of measurement is inherently quantitative?

Interval Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary issue caused by demand characteristics in research studies?

Altered participant behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a ceiling effect?

A situation where scores cluster near the highest possible value Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between a population and a sample in research?

Population includes all members of a group, while a sample is a subset Signup and view all the answers

Which variable is an example of a construct that is abstract and difficult to measure?

Intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What is inter-rater reliability concerned with in research?

Agreement among multiple observers assessing the same phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant challenge in ensuring the validity of a behavioral measurement?

Measuring subjective experiences accurately Signup and view all the answers

Which scale of measurement is characterized by having a true zero point?

Ratio Signup and view all the answers

In the context of testing and measurement, what does reliability assess?

The degree to which results are consistent across tests Signup and view all the answers

What does internal validity primarily refer to in a study?

The assurance that the results are due to the manipulation of the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

Which research design focuses on measuring two or more variables for each participant?

Correlational design Signup and view all the answers

What is a major disadvantage of using a within-subjects design?

Participants may experience fatigue or practice effects Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of descriptive research design?

To describe current states without measuring relationships Signup and view all the answers

What does a positive correlation coefficient indicate?

Both variables move in the same direction Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a threat to internal validity in between-subjects designs?

Differential attrition Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes a between-subjects design from a within-subjects design?

Participants are randomly assigned to one treatment only Signup and view all the answers

Which term best defines extraneous variables in research?

Variables that can influence the outcome but are not the focus of the study Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a measure of central tendency?

Median Signup and view all the answers

How can random assignment help in an experiment?

It balances participant characteristics across treatment groups Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of experimental research design?

To establish cause-and-effect relationships Signup and view all the answers

What effect does participant attrition have in a within-subjects design?

It can skew results and reduce validity Signup and view all the answers

What does standard deviation measure?

The average distance of each score from the mean Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)

EBP uses current, best evidence to make decisions
EBP is important for ethical reasons

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic process for gaining knowledge
The scientific method involves five steps:
- Identifying a problem
- Forming a hypothesis
- Developing a procedure
- Analyzing data
- Drawing a conclusion
Science is empirical, public, and objective
- Empirical: making observations to get answers
- Public: submitting information for critique by others
- Objective: leaving our opinions or bias aside
A hypothesis is an idea or explanation based on limited evidence

Foreground Questions

Foreground questions use the PICO framework:
- P: Patient, population, or problem
- I: Intervention or treatment
- C: Comparison to another intervention, treatment or control
- O: Outcome, desired change or effect

Research Paper Sections

Methods: describes the participants and procedures of the study
Introduction: explains the rationale or purpose of the study
Results: presents the findings of the study
Discussion: interprets the results and considers limitations, future research

Nuremberg Code

Created after World War II in response to unethical experiments
Emphasizes the importance of informed consent and avoiding harm to research participants

Ethical Concerns in Research

Four major ethical concerns in research:
- No harm: participants should not be exposed to undue risk
- Informed consent: participants must be informed about the risks and benefits of the study and must provide their consent to participate
- Use of deception and debriefing: deception can be used in research, but participants must be informed about the true nature of the study
- Confidentiality and anonymity: participant information must be kept confidential and, ideally, anonymous

Peer-Reviewed Articles

Peer-reviewed articles are scholarly articles that have been reviewed by experts in the field
Where you can search for peer-reviewed articles:
- NYU Libraries website
- Google Scholar
- ASHA
- PubMed

Constructs and Variables

A construct is a broad idea or concept
A variable is a characteristic or condition that varies
Some variables are easily measured (e.g., height, weight), while others are abstract (e.g., intelligence, self-esteem)

Operational Definitions

An operational definition is a procedure for measuring a construct or variable
Operational definitions are necessary because they help to translate abstract concepts into measurable behaviors

Validity and Reliability of Measurement

Validity is the degree to which a measurement tool measures what it claims to measure
Reliability is the degree to which a measurement tool produces consistent results
Reliability is necessary for validity, but a reliable measure may not be valid.
Test-retest reliability: consistency of scores over multiple occasions
Inter-rater reliability: agreement between different observers

Types of Validity

Concurrent validity: scores from a new measure are related to scores from an established measure of the same variable
Predictive validity: scores from a measure accurately predict behavior
Construct validity: scores from a measure behave as expected based on the theoretical concept being measured

Scales of Measurement

Nominal: qualitative categories
Ordinal: ranked categories
Interval: equal intervals between categories, with zero being arbitrary
Ratio: equal intervals between categories with a true zero

Ceiling Effect

A ceiling effect occurs when everyone scores high on a measure, making it difficult to detect differences

Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics are cues that participants may pick up on, making them act in a way they think is desired by the researcher
Demand characteristics can limit the validity of a study, as participants may no longer be behaving naturally

Populations and Samples

Population: a whole group of individuals
Sample: part of the population
A sample should be representative of the population to allow for generalizability of results

Research Designs

Descriptive: measures variables as they exist naturally
Correlational: examines relationship between variables
Experimental: manipulates an independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable
Quasi-experimental: like experimental but lacks random assignment
Nonexperimental: does not manipulate variables

Internal Validity

Internal validity is the degree to which a study can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.
Threats to internal validity:
- Environmental variables: factors in the study environment that can influence results
- Individual differences: characteristics of participants that can vary
- Time-related variables: factors that can change over time

External Validity

External validity is the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, and times.
Threats to external validity:
- Sample characteristics: if the sample is not representative of the population, it may be difficult to generalize the findings
- Experimental setting: if the experimental setting is too artificial, it may be difficult to generalize the findings
- Time of study: if the study is conducted during a specific time period, it may be difficult to generalize the findings

Variables

Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Dependent variable: the variable that is measured
Extraneous variable: all other variables that could potentially affect the dependent variable

Between-Subjects Designs

Between-subjects design: compares scores from different groups of participants
Threats to internal validity in between-subjects design:
- Individual differences: if groups are not equivalent on important variables, it may be difficult to determine whether differences in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or to individual differences
- Differential attrition: if participants leave the study at different rates in the different groups, it may be difficult to determine whether differences in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or to attrition
- Communication between groups: if participants in one group learn about the treatment condition of another group, it may be difficult to determine whether differences in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or to communication between groups

Techniques for Limiting Confounding in Between-Subjects Designs

Random assignment: assigning participants to groups randomly to ensure that groups are equivalent on average.
Matching: matching participants in the different groups on important variables to ensure that groups are equivalent
Holding a variable constant: keeping the variable the same for all participants in the study

Within-Subjects Designs

Within-subjects design: compares scores from the same participants in different treatment conditions
Advantages of within-subjects designs:
- Requires fewer participants
- Eliminates or reduces confounding due to individual differences
Disadvantages of within-subjects designs:
- Participant performance can be susceptible to time-related factors
  - Practice effects: participants may perform better on a task the second time they do it because they have had practice
  - Fatigue effects: participants may perform worse on a task the second time they do it because they are tired

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean: the average score
Median: the middle score when scores are arranged from lowest to highest
Mode: the most frequent score

Measures of Variability

Standard deviation: the average distance from the mean
Variance: similar to SD, a more complex calculation

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive designs are used to describe the current state of a variable or set of variables
Descriptive designs do not examine relationships between variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A correlation coefficient describes the relationship between two variables.
Direction: positive, negative, or no relationship
Form: linear or nonlinear
Consistency: strength of the relationship

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) and the Scientific Method. Understand how EBP utilizes current evidence for decision-making and the systematic approach to scientific inquiry. Additionally, learn about foreground questions using the PICO framework.