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Questions and Answers
What term describes the European Union's unique institutional status?
In the context of the EU, what is the role of the European Commission?
Which aspect of the EU is considered to have a 'growing' trend, according to the content?
What was the primary reason for the Empty Chair Crisis led by France in 1965?
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What is one of the three components of the institutional core of a federal system?
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Which event marked the beginning of the single market project in the EU?
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What significant event is mentioned as not having triggered a domino effect in the EU?
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How is the EU described in terms of its institutional evolution?
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Which countries joined the EU during its first enlargement in 1973?
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What significant change occurred with the 1991 Maastricht Treaty?
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Which of these reflects the legislative power structure in the EU?
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What has been noted about the level of politicization in the EU?
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Which treaty was responsible for creating the High Representative position?
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What major economic reform initiative was introduced during the Eurozone crisis of 2008/2009?
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What aspect of EU integration has been debated in the years following the Eurozone crisis?
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Which major event took place in 2016-2020 regarding EU membership?
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How does Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI) view the role of the state in international relations?
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What is a key characteristic of Neofunctionalism (NF) compared to Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI)?
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What vulnerability do both Neofunctionalism and Liberal Intergovernmentalism share regarding their theories?
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In the context of European integration, what do both NF and LI represent in current scholarly debates?
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What defines the preferences that are furthered by the state in Liberal Intergovernmentalism?
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What is required for the Council to make a decision by qualified majority voting?
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Who currently chairs the Eurogroup?
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How often does the European Council meet at a minimum each year?
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What role does the European Parliament play in the EU?
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What type of decisions does the European Council primarily make?
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Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between the Commission and Council presidents?
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What is the maximum length of a term for a president of the European Parliament?
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What is unique about the members of the European Parliament (MEPs)?
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What event contributed to the decline of federalism in Europe during the post-WW2 era?
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What approach did European integration adopt after the decline of federalism?
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Which of the following is NOT a tenet of neo-functionalism?
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What effect does sectoral integration have according to neo-functionalism?
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According to neo-functionalism, at what point is European integration considered to be fully politicized?
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What criticism has been levied against neo-functionalism regarding the integration process?
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Who were some of the key political scientists involved in the development of neo-functionalism?
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What do common arrangements and institutions aim to satisfy in the context of neo-functionalism?
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Study Notes
The Empty Chair Crisis and the Luxembourg Compromise
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Charles de Gaulle, the French President, boycotted the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1965 due to his opposition to the proposed policies that would reduce national veto power and grant the EEC more authority.
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The boycott was resolved through the Luxembourg Compromise which reaffirmed member states' veto rights when their national interests are affected by a policy.
European Integration: A Historical Overview
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The 1970s witnessed the first enlargement of the EEC, welcoming the UK, Ireland, and Denmark to the Union.
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Further enlargements occurred in 1981 (Greece), 1986 (Spain and Portugal), and 1995 (Austria, Sweden, and Finland).
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The Single European Act (1986) was the first treaty to launch the single market project, aiming for completion by 1992. This treaty also expanded majority voting in the Council and increased the European Parliament's role.
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The Maastricht Treaty (1991) formally established the European Union (EU) and introduced three pillars: Justice and Home Affairs (now the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice), Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and the European Communities.
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The Amsterdam Treaty (1996) extended the Community method, integrated JHA, and created the position of High Representative.
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The Euro was introduced in 1999 and circulated physically in 2002.
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The Nice Treaty (2002) reformed the European Commission's structure to facilitate future expansion and adjusted the voting system in the Council.
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The "Big Bang" enlargement (2004-2007) brought in Central and Eastern European countries, Malta, and Cyprus.
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The 2002-2005 period saw the development of the Constitutional Treaty, which was ultimately rejected.
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The Lisbon Treaty (2007) is the foundation of the current EU setup.
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The Eurozone crisis emerged in 2008-2009.
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The period around 2012 saw institutional reforms including the establishment of the European Stability Mechanism (ESM), the Fiscal Compact, and the Banking Union.
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Brexit occurred between 2016 and 2020, marking the UK's departure from the EU.
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The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 resulted in the implementation of EU policies such as "Next-generation EU".
The EU Today: A Hybrid Entity
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The EU is commonly described as a hybrid entity, specifically "sui generis" (unique and distinct), situated between a traditional international organization and a federal state.
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The EU has evolved from its initial international institutional framework toward a more supranationalist model.
Understanding EU Institutions: A Federal Analogy
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To understand the EU's institutional structure, a federal analogy can be applied.
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Key components of a federal system:
- Legislative Power: Composed of two chambers – one representing constituent units and another representing the people.
- Executive Power: A federal government or executive body.
- Judicial Power: A constitutional or supreme court.
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Applying the federal analogy to the EU:
- Legislative: Council System, comprising the EU Council and the European Council, and the European Parliament.
- Executive: European Commission.
- Judicial: Court of Justice of the EU.
EU Institutions: A Detailed Look
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European Commission: Compared to a European federal executive, the Commission proposes legislation, implements EU policies, and manages the EU's budget.
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Council of the European Union: Represents the governments of EU member states, and has significant legislative powers.
- Decisions can be made by unanimity or qualified majority voting (55% of member states representing at least 65% of the EU population).
- Consensus is often sought, but member states can be outvoted on occasion.
- Supported by the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) and numerous specialized working groups.
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Eurogroup: A subset of the Economic and Financial Affairs Council (Ecofin), comprising finance ministers from the 20 Eurozone nations.
- Plays an informal but significant role in macroeconomic policy coordination.
- Elects its own chair, currently held by Pascal Donohoe of Ireland.
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European Council: Consists of heads of state or government from EU member states, including the European Commission President.
- Functions as the summit version of the Council of Ministers (but is separate).
- Led by a permanent president (since the Lisbon Treaty) serving a two-and-a-half-year term.
- Meets at least four times a year, with additional meetings scheduled as needed, especially in emergencies.
- Makes high-level decisions, including treaty revisions (under the simplified procedure).
- Plays a key role in top EU appointments and provides strategic leadership for the Union.
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European Parliament: Represents EU citizens, and is the only directly elected EU institution (since 1979).
- Its institutional and political significance has steadily grown over time.
- Comprises 720 members (MEPs) allocated unevenly across member states.
- MEPs are elected for five years through proportional electoral systems. The latest election took place in June 2024.
- Chaired by a president (currently Roberta Metsola, of Malta), whose term rotates every two-and-a-half years.
- The vision of Europe that the Parliament advocates significantly influences debates on integration.
Theories of European Integration
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Federalism:
- Strongly influential after World War II.
- Advocated for a "big bang" approach to European integration, bringing about a united Europe with centralized power structures.
- Lost its dominant position after the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) in 1954.
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Neo-Functionalism (NF):
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The first specific theory of European integration, developed by political scientists, primarily Ernst Haas, Leon Lindberg, and Philippe Schmitter.
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Focused on European integration, after initially aiming for broader comparative applications.
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Two key tenets:
- Institutional Functionalism: Institutions are explained by the functions they perform.
- Materialist Worldview: Emphasizes pragmatic, material interests (especially economic, security, and social welfare) as the driving forces behind European integration.
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Key concepts in NF:
- Spillover Effect: Sectoral integration creates pressure to integrate in related areas.
- Common Institutions: These institutions have a vested interest in further integration and lobby for it.
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NF portrays integration as a gradual process moving towards supranational federalism, but has faced criticism for being overly simplistic and inconsistent in its empirical performance.
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Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI):
- Emphasizes the role of state actors and their rational pursuit of national interests in driving European integration.
- Contends that integration is the result of strategic interactions between states, influenced by domestic political dynamics, rather than a predetermined path towards supranationalism (as proposed by NF).
- Recognizes the pluralist nature of domestic politics, where the state acts as a mediator between competing interests.
- LI has made significant contributions to understanding European integration, but also faces limitations in its empirical explanatory power.
Summary: Neo-Functionalism and Liberal Intergovernmentalism
- Both NF and LI are comprehensive theories of European integration.
- These theories differ:
- In their assumptions about the driving forces of European politics.
- In their identification of key actors.
- In their interpretations of the nature of the European Communities/Union.
- Their comprehensiveness also makes them empirically vulnerable (as they aim to explain a broad range of phenomena) and difficult to falsify.
- Currently, NF and LI are often employed as analytical tools to explain specific aspects of European integration rather than providing comprehensive theories of the entire process.
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Description
Explore the complexities of European integration from the Empty Chair Crisis to the Luxembourg Compromise. This quiz covers key historical events, treaties, and enlargements of the European Economic Community (EEC) in the 1970s and beyond. Test your knowledge on the significant milestones that shaped the European Union.
