practice exam 1/3 !

<p>Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is identical, with thymine replaced by uracil (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To determine the template strand for transcription. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>TATA box (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>28-32 nucleotides downstream (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transcription factor TFIIB (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is the first identified eukaryotic core promoter motif. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increases the stability of the mRNA strand against degradation (B), Promotes binding of ribosomes for translation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Poly A polymerase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AUAAA sequence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Facilitate the inverted orientation of guanosine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>200-250 adenosine residues (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Contributing to the mature RNA product (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Conserved 5’ splice site sequences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They help recruit small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Approx. 15-30% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Small nuclear RNAs and associated proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Large macromolecules (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Importins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nxf1 and Nxt1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Expression of certain genes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sequence-specific transcription factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They bind to specific sequences in the major groove of DNA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To promote interactions with other proteins (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Their binding to various regulatory sites (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Minimal information on treatment options without details on limitations or side effects (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The student acknowledged the treatment options but lacked depth in side effects coverage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A complete discussion including limitations, side effects, and efficacy of the treatment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Age or gender-related factors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>References are outdated and may not reflect current knowledge. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Each daughter DNA molecule consists of one original and one new strand. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>S Phase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Small portions of the eukaryotic genome replicated simultaneously. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It serves as a site for nucleotide incorporation into new strands. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>10,000-100,000 origins (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>5' → 3' (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Small DNA fragments synthesized away from the replication fork (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DnaB helicase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They recruit helicase to the origin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The action of RNA primers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Silent mutation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nondisjunction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>HTT (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hereditary mutations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>An insertion or deletion of DNA that shifts the entire reading frame (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>De novo mutation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Two identical alleles of a gene (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>50% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They can mask dominant alleles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They affect males and females equally. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>7 transmembrane helical domains (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>GTP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To activate second messengers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hydrophobic inhibitors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It dissociates from the Gβγ complex and activates an effector (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They induce phosphorylation of intracellular proteins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Serine, threonine, tyrosine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Trigger protein degradation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Store genetic information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Potential differences in cancer treatment decisions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>IP3 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It promotes the transcription of cAMP-sensitive genes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G Protein-Coupled Receptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It activates adenylyl cyclase. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G12/13 signaling pathway (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>cGMP levels decrease, causing hyperpolarization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDE) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Slower increase in cGMP levels, impairing adaptability to light changes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They dephosphorylate phospholipids, affecting the levels of second messengers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inositol trisphosphate (IP3) (A), Diacylglycerol (DAG) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transcription factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>cAMP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Adenylyl cyclase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>IP3 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Protein Kinase C (PKC) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They activate/inactivate target proteins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Receptor protein-tyrosine kinases (RTKs) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They consist of a single transmembrane domain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>B- and T-cell receptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The process of synthesizing complementary RNA from a DNA template in the nucleus.

The process of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm, using information encoded by mRNA.

An enzyme that binds to DNA, initiates transcription at a specific site (promoter), and synthesizes RNA.

The RNA molecule that carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.

The fundamental concept in molecular biology that describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.

Region of a gene containing key elements like the TATA box, crucial for general transcription factor binding and RNA polymerase activity.

A specific DNA sequence (TATAWAWR) that plays a role in the binding of transcription factor TBP to the DNA for transcription initiation.

A DNA sequence (YYANWYY) overlapping the start site of transcription crucial for RNA pol II. Recognized by TAFs.

Regions near the start of transcription (close by) that binding sites of transcription factors regulating gene expression timing and level

The exact location where the RNA polymerase begins building an mRNA strand from a DNA template

A complex of proteins and enzymes that travels with RNA polymerase during transcription, processing mRNA as it is being synthesized.

A protective structure added to the 5' end of mRNA, consisting of a guanine nucleotide linked to the mRNA in an unusual 5'-5' triphosphate bridge, with methyl groups added to the guanine and adjacent nucleotides.

A long string of adenine nucleotides added to the 3' end of mRNA, providing protection from degradation by exonucleases and aiding in nuclear export.

Phosphorylation of the CTD (C-terminal domain) of RNA polymerase, especially by TFIIH and P-TEFb, recruits specific enzymes responsible for processing mRNA, like capping enzymes and poly(A) polymerase.

The process of removing non-coding sequences (introns) from pre-mRNA and joining the coding sequences (exons) together to form a mature mRNA molecule.

Introns are non-coding sequences within a gene that are removed during RNA processing. They are not included in the mature RNA product, which is used for protein synthesis.

Exons are coding regions within a gene that are retained in the mature RNA product. They contribute to the final protein sequence.

Splice sites are specific sequences at the boundaries between introns and exons that signal where to cut and join the RNA during splicing.

Small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (snRNPs) are complexes of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins that are involved in RNA splicing.

Exonic splicing enhancers are sequences within exons that help recruit snRNPs to ensure proper splicing.

A large protein complex embedded in the nuclear envelope that acts as a gateway for the transport of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Proteins that make up the Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC).

A specific protein domain rich in phenylalanine (F) and glycine (G) amino acids, found in nucleoporins lining the central channel of the NPC.

Nuclear Localization Signal; a short sequence of amino acids on a protein that targets it for import into the nucleus.

Nuclear Export Signal; a short sequence of amino acids on a protein that targets it for export out of the nucleus.

Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences to regulate gene transcription; they can either activate or repress gene expression.

A part of a transcription factor that directly binds to specific DNA sequences, recognizing and interacting with specific nucleotide base pairs.

A region in a transcription factor that interacts with other proteins, like co-activators, to enhance the rate of transcription.

A domain that allows transcription factors to form dimers (pairs of identical or similar proteins) which can increase their binding affinity to DNA and regulate transcription more effectively.

A common DNA-binding motif in transcription factors, characterized by a structure where a zinc ion coordinates with amino acids to form a finger-like projection.

A score assigned to the overall quality of an assignment, considering factors like organization, clarity, and writing style.

Problems with the way an assignment is structured, making it difficult to understand or follow.

Mistakes in the spelling of words in an assignment.

A dedicated part of an academic paper where all sources used are listed in a standardized format.

A problem where the sources used in a paper are not recent enough, potentially indicating outdated information.

How well a treatment works in achieving its desired outcome. This involves considering the effectiveness of the treatment in addressing the specific condition or symptoms.

Factors that restrict the effectiveness or applicability of a treatment. These can include constraints like age, gender, underlying health conditions, or potential side effects.

Unintended consequences or adverse reactions that may occur as a result of a treatment. These can range from mild to severe and are important to consider when evaluating the overall risk-benefit profile of a treatment.

Assessing the overall effectiveness of a treatment by considering not only its positive outcomes but also its limitations and any potential side effects. This involves weighing the benefits against the risks.

How age or gender can influence the effectiveness and appropriateness of a particular treatment. Certain treatments might be more suitable or have different outcomes depending on the individual's age or biological sex.

A method of DNA replication where each new DNA molecule has one original strand (from the parent molecule) and one newly synthesized strand.

The Y-shaped region where parental DNA strands are separated and new strands are synthesized during DNA replication.

Small portions of the eukaryotic genome that are replicated independently, enabling efficient replication of the large DNA molecule.

Localized regions within the nucleus where multiple replicons are actively engaged in DNA replication.

A complex of proteins, including DNA Polymerase III, that carries out DNA synthesis during replication.

The new DNA strand synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction, following the movement of the replication fork.

The new DNA strand synthesized discontinuously in fragments (Okazaki fragments) in the 5' to 3' direction, moving away from the replication fork.

Short DNA segments synthesized on the lagging strand, requiring an RNA primer for each fragment.

RNA primer provides a starting point for DNA polymerase to extend new DNA strands, as it cannot initiate synthesis on its own.

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds between the strands using ATP.

A change in a single nucleotide within a DNA sequence.

An insertion or deletion of nucleotides that shifts the reading frame of a gene, changing the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.

A change in the number of copies of a DNA sequence.

An increase in the number of copies of a short DNA sequence, often causing genetic disorders.

An error in cell division where chromosomes fail to separate properly, leading to abnormal chromosome numbers in daughter cells.

Genetic changes that occur spontaneously during germline development (egg or sperm) or right after fertilization in a single cell. This results in the child having the mutation present in every cell of their body, but without family history of the disorder.

Genetic alterations that occur in a single cell of the body after fertilization, affecting only the cells descended from that original mutated cell. They are NOT inherited.

A pattern of inheritance where only one copy of a mutated gene is needed for an individual to develop a disease. Affected individuals have a 50% chance of passing on the mutation to their offspring.

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene. Can be homozygous dominant (BB) or homozygous recessive (bb).

Having two different alleles for a particular gene (Bb).

The process by which cells receive and respond to signals from their environment. This involves a chain of events where one molecule activates another, ultimately leading to a cellular response.

Kinases add phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to proteins, while phosphatases remove them (dephosphorylation). These changes can activate or inactivate proteins, controlling their function.

G-protein coupled receptors are transmembrane proteins that bind to signaling molecules outside the cell. This binding activates an intracellular G-protein, which then triggers further signaling events.

Receptor tyrosine kinases are transmembrane proteins that have enzymatic activity. Binding of signaling molecules causes the receptor to dimerize and activate its kinase domain, leading to phosphorylation of other proteins.

Phosphorylation can alter protein activity by activating or inhibiting enzymes, modifying protein-protein interactions, changing a protein's location within the cell, or triggering protein degradation.

GPCRs are a large and diverse family of membrane proteins that bind to a wide range of signaling molecules, triggering intracellular signaling cascades.

G proteins consist of three subunits: alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ). They are inactive when bound to GDP and become activated when GDP is exchanged for GTP.

Ligand binding to the GPCR triggers a conformational change, leading to the activation of the G protein. The activated Gα subunit then interacts with and activates an effector protein, like adenylyl cyclase.

GPCRs bind to various ligands, including small molecules like hormones (epinephrine, dopamine), neurotransmitters (acetylcholine), and gases (NO, CO), as well as steroids and lipid messengers.

1. Ligand binds to the GPCR, causing a conformational change. 2. This change allows G protein to bind to the receptor. 3. Gα exchanges GDP for GTP, becoming activated. 4. Activated Gα dissociates from Gßγ and binds to an effector protein. 5. Effector protein activity changes, triggering downstream cellular responses.

Small molecules that relay signals inside cells. They are generated by effector enzymes in response to an external signal and activate/deactivate target proteins.

G proteins are proteins that act as molecular switches. They are activated by GPCRs (G protein-coupled receptors) and can activate different effector enzymes, leading to diverse cellular responses.

Gs, Gi, and Gq. Gs activates adenylyl cyclase, increasing cAMP levels. Gi inhibits adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP levels. Gq activates phospholipase C, producing IP3 and DAG.

Second messengers produced by the activation of phospholipase C (PLC) via Gq proteins. IP3 triggers calcium release from intracellular stores, while DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC).

Increased cAMP levels activate protein kinase A (PKA). PKA can phosphorylate CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein), a transcription factor. Phosphorylated CREB binds to DNA, activating gene transcription.

GPCRs bind to various ligands including hormones (epinephrine, dopamine), neurotransmitters (acetylcholine), and gases (NO, CO), as well as steroids and lipid messengers.

The process by which cells communicate with each other and their environment, receiving and responding to signals.

Transmembrane proteins that act as signal receptors. They become activated when signaling molecules bind to them, triggering a cascade of phosphorylation events.

A family of protein kinases involved in signal transduction pathways. They play a role in regulating cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation.

Ligands bind to RTKs causing them to dimerize and activate their kinase activity. This initiates a phosphorylation cascade ultimately leading to the activation of MAPKs.

Dysregulation of MAPK pathways can contribute to diseases like cancer, inflammation, and cardiovascular diseases. These pathways can be hijacked by cancer cells to promote abnormal growth.

When one signal molecule (ligand) binds to two receptor proteins at the same time, causing them to associate and form a dimer.

When two different signal molecules (ligands) bind to two separate receptor proteins, causing them to associate and form a dimer.

Insulin, VEGF, PDGF, EGF, and FGF are common ligands that bind to RTKs, initiating various signaling pathways.

RTKs play a crucial role in cell growth, division, and survival. Dysfunction in RTK signaling can lead to diseases like cancer, particularly breast cancers that test positive for HER2.