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Questions and Answers
What is a characteristic of PVAC glue that makes it suitable for ceramic restoration?
Which step is NOT part of the process for restoring ceramic fragments using the methods described?
What documentation method is suggested for recording the restoration process of ceramic objects?
What should be avoided when using masking tape during the gluing process?
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How does the hot method of PVAC application assist in the restoration process?
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Which of the following components is essential in the creation of ceramic materials?
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What characteristic distinguishes primary clay from secondary clay?
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Which of the following is NOT a role of water in creating ceramics?
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Which Etruscan god is associated with the sun?
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What property of secondary clay impacts its melting point compared to primary clay?
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How did Etruscan culture primarily influence Roman culture?
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What is one of the essential materials added as a filler in ceramics?
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Which statement correctly describes the Etruscan tombs?
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What is the primary purpose of Form One in conservation documentation?
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What type of deterioration is NOT included in Form Two's condition report?
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Which element is NOT a part of Form Four's photographic documentation?
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Why is it important to document previous interventions in a conservation context?
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What key information should Form Three include regarding current interventions?
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What is the main purpose of burnishing in ceramics?
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During which phase of firing does the irreversible transformation of clay minerals occur?
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What role does wood ash play in the firing process?
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What temperature range marks the complete dehydration of clay in the firing process?
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What happens during the reduction process while firing ceramics?
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Which firing technique allows for better heat circulation compared to the others?
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What is slip primarily used for in ceramics?
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What is the byproduct released when water vapor forms during the initial firing phase?
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What is one of the theories about the origin of the Etruscans proposed by Herodotos?
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What facilitated the urbanization of Etruscan culture around 750 BCE?
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Which cultural influence significantly affected the Etruscans during the 700-550 BCE period?
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What was a notable characteristic of the Villanovan culture?
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Which name was used by the Greeks to refer to the Etruscans?
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What factor contributed to the instability of Etruscan cities in the early 6th century BCE?
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What was the writing direction of the oldest Etruscan inscriptions?
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What major political change occurred for the Etruscans in 509 BCE?
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Study Notes
Etruscan Origins & Culture
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Ancient historians proposed two origin theories for the Etruscans:
- Herodotus believed they arrived from Lydia due to famine and sailed to Italy.
- Dionysios argued they were native to Italy with unique language, customs, and religion.
- Modern theory suggests indigenous roots since the Neolithic period.
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Villanovan Culture (10th c. BCE) marked the earliest Iron Age culture:
- Exploitation of land and large-scale mineral extraction.
- Huts with geometric designs and necropolis (cemeteries) outside settlements.
- Cremation of bodies, ashes placed in biconical urns with minimal personal items.
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Etruscan culture proper emerged around 750 BCE:
- Developed in central Italy (Tuscany and Latium), expanding northward as well.
- Active in Mediterranean trading, dealing in metal items.
- Accumulated wealth, leading to an aristocratic oligarchy (rule by a few families).
- Urbanization with stone fortifications, roads, temples, and houses.
- Independent city-states forming a 12-city alliance for cultural and religious purposes.
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Orientalizing period (700-550 BCE):
- Strong Greek and Phoenician influence on religion, art, and mythology, with modifications.
- Adoption of the Western Greek alphabet.
- Powerful navy expanding Etruscan power north and south.
- Dominance over Campania, Latium (including Rome).
- Engaged in Mediterranean-wide trading.
- Instability in the early 6th century BCE with battles against Greeks and Carthaginians.
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6th to 5th century BCE:
- Gaul invasion near the Po River hindered Etruscan development.
- 509 BCE saw the founding of the Roman Republic after the last Etruscan king was exiled.
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5th to 3rd century BCE:
- Steady Roman expansion and occupation of Etruscan cities, leading to gradual Romanization.
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Etruscan names:
- Greeks called them Tyrrhenians.
- Romans called them Etruschi.
- They called themselves Rasenna.
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Etruscan language:
- Oldest inscriptions date back to the 8th century BCE.
- Alphabet adopted from Greek colonies in southern Italy.
- Non-Indo-European language, writing from right to left.
- Most inscriptions were on votive offerings, short in length.
- Last Etruscan inscriptions date to the 1st century BCE.
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Etruscan religion:
- Blend of Greek and Oriental influences, with adopted deities and myths.
- Unique deities: Tinia (Zeus), Uni (wife), Usil (sun god).
- Powerful priestly class, including both men and women.
- Large temples with terracotta roofs and statues on the outside, not inside.
- Women enjoyed more freedom than in Greek or Roman society.
- Monumental tombs with painted scenes.
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Notable Etruscan craftsmanship:
- Metalworking, especially jewelry.
- Bucchero pottery.
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Influence on Romans:
- Significant impact on Roman culture, including religion, military, and gladiator games.
- Latin alphabet.
- The first three kings of Rome were Etruscan and were responsible for urbanizing Rome.
Ancient Ceramic Technology
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Ceramic definition:
- Inorganic, non-metallic material molded cold and hardened by heat.
- First man-made material that doesn't decompose, following stone, bone, and wood.
- Clay + water + fire = ceramic.
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Clay composition:
- Rock formed by the decomposition of felspathic rock.
- Structure of alumina and silica layers linked by oxygen and hydroxyl groups.
- Phyllosilicate group with a crystalline network structure.
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Clay types:
- Primary/Residual: Decomposed at the original site, purer, lighter in color, less plastic.
- Secondary: Transported by wind, glaciers, or water, smaller particles, more plastic, impurities, darker color, lower melting point, and more firing shrinkage.
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Role of water:
- Chemically bonds to clay and provides plasticity.
- Added water makes clay less rigid.
- Contains two types of water molecules.
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Fillers:
- Added to facilitate water evaporation, minimize shrinkage, prevent cracking, assist vitrification, and change color.
- Examples: limestone, sand-quartz, shells, dung, ash, feathers, etc.
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Burnishing and Slip:
- Decorative techniques applied before firing in the leather-hard state.
- Burnishing closes the pores.
- Slip (watered-down clay with fine particles) is used for smoothing. Tannin is often added to keep particles suspended.
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Firing techniques:
- Hearth Firing: Vessels piled up and covered with fuel.
- Pit Firing: Shallow pit dug and filled with fuel.
- Kilns: Chambers with separate heating chambers for better heat circulation.
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Firing phases (see chart on slide 28 for details):
- Phase 1 (room temperature to 200 degrees C): Water vapor is created.
- Phase 2 (300 to 600 degrees C): Carbon dioxide is eliminated, organic materials oxidize.
- Phase 3 (450 to 650 degrees C): Decomposition and irreversible transformation of clay minerals; chemically bonded water is released (573 degrees C).
- Phase 4 (700 to 850 degrees C): Complete dehydration, structural dehydration, and clay irreversibly becomes ceramic.
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Oxidation-Reduction-Oxidation (Red-Black Effect):
- Ingredients: Iron oxide in clay and slip, wood ash as a flux to lower the temperature of slip melting.
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Process:
- Step 1: Application of slip rich in iron oxides (FeO, red color) with alkaline wood ash flux to lower melting point, causing vitrification before ceramic.
- Step 2: Firing in an oxidizing atmosphere to 850 degrees C.
- Step 3: Drafts closed and green wood inserted, producing smoke. Incomplete burning of organic material due to lack of oxygen creates CO2, initiating reduction. CO attracts oxygen from iron oxides in ceramic and slip at 900 degrees C, changing red oxide to black. Slip with flux starts to vitrify, rendering the surface non-porous.
- Step 4: Drafts opened for oxidation on areas not yet vitrified, returning areas without slip to red color.
- Haematite (oxygen loss) = Magnetite (black color).
Hands-On Practice: Ceramic Assembly
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Materials:
- Masking tape: Temporary assembly.
- Glue-adhesive: PVAC (Polyvinyl acetate) K-60 dissolved in ethanol (30% PVAC, 70% ethanol).
- Characteristics of PVAC: Easily reversible, chemically inert, heating accelerates drying, thermoplastic (reheating softens, allowing adjustments and reversibility even after years), weaker than original material.
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Process:
- Fragment identification: Based on ceramic fabric, color, thickness, curvature, decoration, inscription, manufacturing process, shape, ceramic part (base, rim, handle, body, etc.).
- Temporary assembly: Using masking tape.
- Numbering gluing order.
- PVAC application: With a skewer or brush, small coil in the center of fragments.
- Tape again: Until dry, but remove within 24 hours to avoid residue.
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Cold vs. Hot Method:
- Hot method: Heat source (flame or heat gun) applied to glue before joining, accelerating drying. Bubbling indicates solvent evaporation.
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Conservation documentation:
- Why: Preserves condition and original treatment, helps future conservators understand previous techniques.
- How: Daybooks with notes, photos, and sketches. Record cards with descriptive information, condition details, treatment stages, and storage.
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Importance:
- Prevents loss of object information and treatment details.
- Facilitates future conservation efforts.
Forms for Conservation Documentation
- Form One (Object Identification): Inventory number, owner, provenance, storage location, historical data, material, manufacturing technique, ceramic class, shape, description, usage, documentation by, date.
- Form Two (Condition Report): Inventory number, ceramic class, previous intervention, number of detached fragments, physical deterioration (surfaces and structure, including encrustations, dirt, dust, scratches, powdering, cracks, fractures, loss), biological/chemical deterioration, planned interventions, documentation by, date.
- Form Three (Current Interventions): Inventory number, date, intervention, notes.
- Form Four (Photographic Documentation): Inventory number, photo number, date, caption, photo miniature.
Photography:
- Include an inventory number, color chart, and measure scale.
- Capture all sides, details, and the layout of fragments.
- Pay attention to background, lighting, and light direction.
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Description
Explore the fascinating theories surrounding the origins of the Etruscans, from ancient historians to modern perspectives. Discover the Villanovan culture and the evolution of Etruscan society, including their trade practices and urbanization. This quiz will deepen your understanding of the rich cultural heritage of ancient Italy.
