Archaeology Midterm Study Guide PDF

Etruscans: Two origin theories of ancient historians: Herodotos – Arrived from Lydia due to famine, part of the population left and sailed to the Italian peninsula. Dionysios – Etruscans are native to Italy and very different from other populations, language, customs, and religi...

Etruscans: Two origin theories of ancient historians: Herodotos – Arrived from Lydia due to famine, part of the population left and sailed to the Italian peninsula. Dionysios – Etruscans are native to Italy and very different from other populations, language, customs, and religion. Modern theory: indigenous since the Neolithic period. Villanovan Culture: Starts around 10th c. BCE Earliest Iron Age culture – exploitation of land, new mineral resources extracted on a large scale. Huts, later decorated with a geometric design, necropolis (city of the dead-cemetery) outside settlement – cremation of bodies and placing ashes in biconical urns with few personal items: jewelry, arm weapons 750 BCE Etruscan Proper culture started - Developed in Central Italy – mostly Tuscany and Latium and also occupied areas north of Tuscany. Trading (metal items) in the Mediterranean area with Greeks, Phoenicians …etc. Accumulation of wealth, Aristocratic power – Oligarchy – few families rule. Urbanization – Fortification made in stone, roads, temples, houses…Independent self-sufficient city-states – Alliance 12 cities - cultural, religious less political one. 700-550 Orientalising Greek-Phoenician influence in religion, art, mythology… adopted with modifications the Western Greek alphabet Large and powerful Navy – increasing power to North and South. Campania, Latium – Rome! All Mediterranean trading. Instability – early 6th c BCE Greek – Carthaginians battles against Greeks ….. losses …Etruscan cities focused and developing in internal areas. th 6-5 c. BCE Gaul invasion from North near Po river……obstacle for development ROMA - 509 BCE Republic begins after Last (Etruscan) King exiled. 5th – 4th – 3rd c. BCE Most Etruscan cities were occupied by Rome, and many battles, especially in southern areas. Slow but steady Romanization of all Etruria till the creation of the Roman Empire 1st c. BCE Name of Etruscans: Greek -Tyrrhenians Romans- Etruschi Themselves Rassenna Oldest Etruscan inscriptions- 8th c. 700 BCE  (Alphabet adopted from Greek colonies in southern Italy. Language not Indo-European, writing 8th c. BCE altered the Western Greek alphabet. Written from right to left. Most are on votive offerings – very short. 1st c BCE last Etruscan inscriptions. Religion Greek and oriental influence – human form and similar names with some unique characteristics. Adopted myths and heroes of Greek mythology. Tinia – Zeus, Uni wife, Usil god of the sun. The elite class of priests – men and women. Large temples with terracotta roofs and statues on top not inside. Women had more freedom than in Greek and Roman culture. Etruscan tombs are monumental, painted with scenes Metalworking!!! Jewelry, Bucchero Influence on Romans Huge impact on Roman culture – religion, military, gladiator games… Language – Latin alphabet The first 3 kings of Rome were Etruscans, the first kings of Rome urbanized the settlement. Power Point Ancient Ceramic Technology Definition of ceramic- inorganic non-metallic items formed, modeled cold, and “hardened” consolidated by heat ○ It is the first man-made material that does not decompose after stone, bone, and wood objects ○ Clay+water+fire=ceramic Clay – what is it?- considered a rock formed by the decomposition of felspathic rock Structure (alumina and silica layers that link with each with O and OH groups other, sliding layers-sheets – malleability ) ○ Has the chemical structure of a crystalline network, phyllosilicate group Types- Primary, Secondary – characteristics ○ Primary/Residual- stayed at the place of rock’s decomposition purer, lighter in color, no impurities, less plastic (malleable) Porcelain ○ Secondary- moved by wind, glaciers, and water- reducing particle size, more plastic, impurities, darker color, lower melting point, and more firing shrinkage. Role of water – chemically bond and plasticity of water ○ As water is added it becomes less rigid ○ Contains two types of water molecules Fillers – what are they for? ○ Allows for water evaporation, minimizes shrinking, prevents cracking, helps vitrification, and is used to change color Ex: limestone, sand-quartz, shells, dung, ash, feathers, etc. What is: burnishing, slip ○ Decoration before firing- in a leather hard state Burnishing-closes the pores Slip-used to smooth w/ water- finest particles of clay produced through elutriation, tannin was often added to keep particles in suspension Development of firing techniques (control of heat and air) ○ Hearth Firing- vessels were piled up and covered with fuel ○ Pit Firing- shallow pit dug and filled with fuel ○ Kilns- chambers used to fire ceramics with separate chambers- which allowed for  better heat circulation Phases of Firing – see chart on slide 28 and briefly also firing phases I, II, III, IV - know briefly what happens at each and at what temperature (range) clay turns irreversibly ceramic and stabilizes. ○ Phase 1: room temperature - 200 degrees Celcius- in this phase, water vapor is created ○ Phase 2: 300-600 degrees- there is an elimination of carbon dioxide, combustion oxidation of organic materials occurs ○ Phase 3: 450-650 degrees- decomposition and irreversible transformation of clay minerals, release of chemically bonded water (573 degrees) ○ Phase 4: 700-850 degrees- complete dehydration, and structural dehydration- irreversibly becomes ceramic Oxidation-Reduction-Oxidation Red-Black effect – know all ingredients necessary (Iron oxide in clay and slip, wood ash as a flux to lower the temperature of slip melting, why and how the firing process happens ○ Step One: Application of slip rich in iron oxides “Fe0” (red color) mixed with alkaline (wood ash) as a flux to lower its melting point, thus vitrification takes place before that of the ceramic ○ Step Two: Firing in an Oxidizing atmosphere up till 850 degrees celcius ○ Step Three: All drafts are closed and green wood is inserted into the kiln to produce smoke, due to the lack of oxygen no complete burning of organic material can take place, and carbon dioxide forms Reduction takes place- chemically C0 is not stable and will attract oxygen from the Iron oxides contained by the ceramic and slip (900 degrees C) The red oxide will change to black and die to the increasing temperature the slip with the flux starts to vitrify and render the surface non-porous ○ Step Four: Drafts are opened to let air inside and oxidation takes place again on areas that were not vitrified yet, areas that were left with no slip return to red color ○ Haematite- Oxygen Loss- Magnetite HANDS-ON PRACTICE: CERAMIC ASSEMBLY See also the handout on assembly A. Materials used: masking tape (pressure sensitive tape) – why, how ○ Allows for temporary assembly glue-adhesive: PVAC (Polyvinyl acetate) – K60 dissolved in ethanol (30% PVAC in 70% ethanol) Characteristics: easily reversible, inert chemically, heating up accelerates drying, thermoplastic-reheating becomes soft allows adjustments and reversibility even after many years, weaker than the original. B. Process: Search and identification of ceramic fragments - parts based on: ceramic fabric, color, thickness, curvature, decorations, inscription, making process (on wheel, by mold…), shape ceramic part( base, rim, handle, body…etc) temporary assembly of fragments with masking tape numbering order of gluing process (check for not locking out pieces) gluing with PVAC K-60 in ethanol application by skewer or brush, small coil in the center of fragments, only 1 side if thin ceramic, tape again with masking tape until dry. Do not leave the tape on longer than 24 hours, may leave residues!  COLD or HOT method. Hot method with heat source (flame or heat gun to accelerate drying) applied to glue before joining 2 fragments together. The bubbling of glue shows the evaporation of the solvent. CONSERVATION DOCUMENTATION Why and how is it done? ○ It can be done by having daybooks- this includes having notes, photos, and sketches of the different adhesives, fillers, and methods used on the objects during day-to-day work ○ Record cards are used and include descriptive information, details about the condition of the object, and detailing the treatment stages and storage Importance for present and future? ○ Without documentation both the condition and original treatment of the object may be lost- it will be harder to determine the nature of the previous restorer's techniques ○ It is essential when another conservator needs to reverse the adhesives FORMS 1,2,3,4 used in class - be familiar with the type of information they should contain and why it is important Form One: Identification of the Object Inventory Number (Object ID) Owner Provenance Storage Location Historical Data Material Manufacturing technique Ceramic Class Shape Description Usage Documentation By Date Form Two: Condition Report Inventory Number (Object ID) Ceramic Class Previous Intervention Number of detached fragments Physical Deterioration (surfaces) ○ Encrustations ○ Dirt, Dust ○ Scratch ○ Powdering Physical Deterioration (structure) ○ CRacks ○ Fractures ○ Loss Biological/Chemical Deterioration ○ Dark Stains Interventions Planned Documentation By  Date Form Three: Current Interventions Inventory Number (Object ID) Date Intervention Notes ** Columns Form Four: Photographic Documentation Inventory Number (Object ID) Photo Number Date Caption Photo Minature ** Columns Photography – inv. Number, color, and measure scale, showing all sides, details, the layout of fragments…. background, lights, and direction of light...